Important events in history
on July 1 ^st

Events

2020
1. The United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement replaces NAFTA.
  1. United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement
    
    The Agreement between the United States of America, the United Mexican States, and Canada (USMCA) is a free trade agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It replaced the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) implemented in 1994, and is sometimes characterized as "NAFTA 2.0", or "New NAFTA", since it largely maintains or updates the provisions of its predecessor. USMCA created one of the world's largest free trade zones, spanning roughly 500 million people and totaling over $26 trillion in GDP (PPP).
2013
1. Croatia becomes the 28th member of the European Union.
  1. Croatia
    
    Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe. It shares a coastline along the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west and southwest. Croatia's capital and largest city, Zagreb, forms one of the country's primary subdivisions, with twenty counties. The country spans an area of 56,594 square kilometres, hosting a population of nearly 3.9 million.
  2. 2013 enlargement of the European Union
    
    The most recent enlargement of the European Union saw Croatia become the European Union's 28th member state on 1 July 2013. The country applied for EU membership in 2003, and the European Commission recommended making it an official candidate in early 2004. Candidate country status was granted to Croatia by the European Council in mid-2004. The entry negotiations, while originally set for March 2005, began in October that year together with the screening process.
  3. European Union
    
    The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.
2008
1. Rioting erupted in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, over allegations of fraud surrounding the recent legislative election.
  1. 2008 riot in Mongolia
    
    On 1 July 2008, a riot broke out in Ulaanbaatar, the Mongolian capital city. The riot was sparked by allegations of fraud surrounding the 2008 legislative election which occurred three days earlier. While initially a peaceful protest, the riot resulted in Mongolia's first state of emergency which lasted four days, and a military presence was brought into the city to quell the riot. Five people were killed by the police, and the headquarters of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party was set on fire. Additional suggested causes for the riot include a change to the electoral system which was not well understood, and an increased division between Mongolia's rich and poor population.
  2. Ulaanbaatar
    
    Ulaanbaatar, previously anglicized as Ulan Bator, is the capital and most populous city of Mongolia. It is the coldest capital city in the world. The municipality is located in north central Mongolia at an elevation of about 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) in a valley on the Tuul River. The city was originally founded in 1639 as a nomadic Buddhist monastic center, changing location 28 times, and was permanently settled at its current location in 1778.
  3. 2008 Mongolian legislative election
    
    Legislative elections were held in Mongolia on 29 June 2008. A total of 356 candidates ran for the 76 seats in the State Great Khural. According to official results published on 14 July, at least 39 seats were won by the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), and at least 25 seats by the main opposition party, the Democrats (DP). Ten seats remained subject to possible recounts.
2. Riots erupt in Mongolia in response to allegations of fraud surrounding the 2008 legislative elections.
  1. 2008 riot in Mongolia
    
    On 1 July 2008, a riot broke out in Ulaanbaatar, the Mongolian capital city. The riot was sparked by allegations of fraud surrounding the 2008 legislative election which occurred three days earlier. While initially a peaceful protest, the riot resulted in Mongolia's first state of emergency which lasted four days, and a military presence was brought into the city to quell the riot. Five people were killed by the police, and the headquarters of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party was set on fire. Additional suggested causes for the riot include a change to the electoral system which was not well understood, and an increased division between Mongolia's rich and poor population.
2007
1. Smoking in England is banned in all public indoor spaces.
  1. Smoking ban in England
    
    A smoking ban in England, making it illegal to smoke in all enclosed work places in England, came into force on 1 July 2007 as a consequence of the Health Act 2006. Similar bans had already been introduced by the rest of the United Kingdom: in Scotland on 26 March 2006, Wales on 2 April 2007 and Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007.
2006
1. The first operation of Qinghai–Tibet Railway is conducted in China.
  1. Qinghai–Tibet railway
    
    The Qinghai–Tibet railway or Qingzang railway, is a high-elevation railway that connects Xining, Qinghai Province, to Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
2004
1. Saturn orbit insertion of Cassini–Huygens begins at 01:12 UTC and ends at 02:48 UTC.
  1. Saturn
    
    Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth; however, with its larger volume, Saturn is over 95 times more massive.
  2. Orbit insertion
    
    Orbit insertion is the spaceflight operation of adjusting a spacecraft’s momentum, in particular to allow for entry into a stable orbit around a planet, moon, or other celestial body. This maneuver involves either deceleration from a speed in excess of the respective body’s escape velocity, or acceleration to it from a lower speed.
  3. Cassini–Huygens
    
    Cassini–Huygens, commonly called Cassini, was a space-research mission by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to send a space probe to study the planet Saturn and its system, including its rings and natural satellites. The Flagship-class robotic spacecraft comprised both NASA's Cassini space probe and ESA's Huygens lander, which landed on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Cassini was the fourth space probe to visit Saturn and the first to enter its orbit, where it stayed from 2004 to 2017. The two craft took their names from the astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens.
  4. Coordinated Universal Time
    
    Coordinated Universal Time or UTC is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about one second of mean solar time at 0° longitude and is not adjusted for daylight saving time. It is effectively a successor to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
2003
1. Over 500,000 people protest against efforts to pass anti-sedition legislation in Hong Kong.
  1. Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23
    
    Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 is an article in the Basic Law, the constitution of Hong Kong. It states that Hong Kong "shall enact laws on its own to prohibit any act of treason, secession, sedition, subversion against the Central People's Government, or theft of state secrets, to prohibit foreign political organizations or bodies from conducting political activities in the Region, and to prohibit political organizations or bodies of the Region from establishing ties with foreign political organizations or bodies."
2002
1. Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937 and DHL Flight 611 collided in mid-air over Überlingen, Germany, killing all 71 people aboard both aircraft.
  1. 2002 Überlingen mid-air collision
    
    On the night of 1 July 2002, BAL Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937, a Tupolev Tu-154 passenger jet, and DHL International Aviation ME Flight 611, a Boeing 757 cargo jet, collided in midair over Überlingen, a southern German town on Lake Constance, near the Swiss border. All of the passengers and crew aboard both planes were killed, resulting in a total death toll of 71.
  2. Überlingen
    
    Überlingen is a German city on the northern shore of Lake Constance (Bodensee) in Baden-Württemberg near the border with Switzerland. After the city of Friedrichshafen, it is the second largest city in the Bodenseekreis (district), and a central point for the outlying communities. Since 1 January 1993, Überlingen has been categorized as a large district city.
2. The International Criminal Court is established to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression.
  1. International Criminal Court
    
    The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression. It is distinct from the International Court of Justice, an organ of the United Nations that hears disputes between states. While praised as a major step towards justice, and as an innovation in international law and human rights, the ICC has faced a number of criticisms from governments and civil society, including objections to its jurisdiction, accusations of bias, Eurocentrism and racism, questioning of the fairness of its case-selection and trial procedures, and doubts about its effectiveness.
  2. Genocide
    
    Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word γένος with the Latin suffix -caedo.
  3. Crimes against humanity
    
    Crimes against humanity are widespread or systemic acts committed by or on behalf of a de facto authority, usually a state, that grossly violate human rights. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity do not have to take place within the context of war, and apply to widespread practices rather than acts committed by individuals. Although crimes against humanity apply to acts committed by or on behalf of authorities, they need not be official policy, and require only tolerance rather than explicit approval. The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the Nuremberg trials. Initially being considered for legal use, widely in international law, following the Holocaust a global standard of human rights was articulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Political groups or states that violate or incite violation of human rights norms, as found in the Declaration, are an expression of the political pathologies associated with crimes against humanity.
  4. War crime
    
    A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hostages, unnecessarily destroying civilian property, deception by perfidy, wartime sexual violence, pillaging, and for any individual that is part of the command structure who orders any attempt to committing mass killings including genocide or ethnic cleansing, the granting of no quarter despite surrender, the conscription of children in the military and flouting the legal distinctions of proportionality and military necessity.
  5. Crime of aggression
    
    A crime of aggression or crime against peace is the planning, initiation, or execution of a large-scale and serious act of aggression using state military force. The definition and scope of the crime is controversial. The Rome Statute contains an exhaustive list of acts of aggression that can give rise to individual criminal responsibility, which include invasion, military occupation, annexation by the use of force, bombardment, and military blockade of ports. Aggression is generally a leadership crime that can only be committed by those with the power to shape a state's policy of aggression, rather than those who carry it out.
3. Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937, a Tupolev Tu-154, and DHL Flight 611, a Boeing 757, collide in mid-air over Überlingen, southern Germany, killing all 71 on board both planes.
  1. Tupolev Tu-154
    
    The Tupolev Tu-154 is a three-engined, medium-range, narrow-body airliner designed in the mid-1960s and manufactured by Tupolev. A workhorse of Soviet and (subsequently) Russian airlines for several decades, it carried half of all passengers flown by Aeroflot and its subsidiaries, remaining the standard domestic-route airliner of Russia and former Soviet states until the mid-2000s. It was exported to 17 non-Russian airlines and used as a head-of-state transport by the air forces of several countries.
  2. Boeing 757
    
    The Boeing 757 is an American narrow-body airliner designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The then-named 7N7, a twinjet successor for the 727, received its first orders in August 1978. The prototype completed its maiden flight on February 19, 1982 and it was FAA certified on December 21, 1982. Eastern Air Lines placed the original 757-200 in commercial service on January 1, 1983. A package freighter (PF) variant entered service in September 1987 and a combi model in September 1988. The stretched 757-300 was launched in September 1996 and began service in March 1999. After 1,050 had been built for 54 customers, production ended in October 2004, while Boeing offered the largest 737 NG variants as a successor.
  3. 2002 Überlingen mid-air collision
    
    On the night of 1 July 2002, BAL Bashkirian Airlines Flight 2937, a Tupolev Tu-154 passenger jet, and DHL International Aviation ME Flight 611, a Boeing 757 cargo jet, collided in midair over Überlingen, a southern German town on Lake Constance, near the Swiss border. All of the passengers and crew aboard both planes were killed, resulting in a total death toll of 71.
  4. Überlingen
    
    Überlingen is a German city on the northern shore of Lake Constance (Bodensee) in Baden-Württemberg near the border with Switzerland. After the city of Friedrichshafen, it is the second largest city in the Bodenseekreis (district), and a central point for the outlying communities. Since 1 January 1993, Überlingen has been categorized as a large district city.
1999
1. Legislative governance of Scotland was transferred from the Scottish Office in Westminster to the Scottish Parliament.
  1. Devolution in the United Kingdom
    
    In the United Kingdom, devolution is the Parliament of the United Kingdom's statutory granting of a greater level of self-government to the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd, the Northern Ireland Assembly and the London Assembly and to their associated executive bodies the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government, the Northern Ireland Executive and in England, the Greater London Authority and combined authorities.
  2. Scottish Office
    
    The Scottish Office was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom from 1885 until 1999, exercising a wide range of government functions in relation to Scotland under the control of the Secretary of State for Scotland. Following the establishment of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, most of its work was transferred to the newly established Scottish Executive, with a small residue of functions retained by the Scotland Office.
  3. Palace of Westminster
    
    The Palace of Westminster serves as the meeting place for both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Informally known as the Houses of Parliament, the Palace lies on the north bank of the River Thames in the City of Westminster, in central London, England.
  4. Scottish Parliament
    
    The Scottish Parliament is the devolved, unicameral legislature of Scotland. Located in the Holyrood area of the capital city, Edinburgh, it is frequently referred to by the metonym Holyrood. The Parliament is a democratically elected body comprising 129 members known as Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs), elected for five-year terms under the additional member system: 73 MSPs represent individual geographical constituencies elected by the plurality (first-past-the-post) system, while a further 56 are returned as list members from eight additional member regions. Each region elects seven party-list MSPs. Each region elects 15 to 17 MSPs in total. The most recent general election to the Parliament was held on 6 May 2021, with the Scottish National Party winning a plurality.
2. The Scottish Parliament is officially opened by Elizabeth II on the day that legislative powers are officially transferred from the old Scottish Office in London to the new devolved Scottish Executive in Edinburgh. In Wales, the powers of the Welsh Secretary are transferred to the National Assembly.
  1. Scottish Parliament
    
    The Scottish Parliament is the devolved, unicameral legislature of Scotland. Located in the Holyrood area of the capital city, Edinburgh, it is frequently referred to by the metonym Holyrood. The Parliament is a democratically elected body comprising 129 members known as Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs), elected for five-year terms under the additional member system: 73 MSPs represent individual geographical constituencies elected by the plurality (first-past-the-post) system, while a further 56 are returned as list members from eight additional member regions. Each region elects seven party-list MSPs. Each region elects 15 to 17 MSPs in total. The most recent general election to the Parliament was held on 6 May 2021, with the Scottish National Party winning a plurality.
  2. Elizabeth II
    
    Elizabeth II was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime, and was head of state of 15 realms at the time of her death. Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of any British monarch and the longest verified reign of any female monarch in history.
  3. Scottish Office
    
    The Scottish Office was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom from 1885 until 1999, exercising a wide range of government functions in relation to Scotland under the control of the Secretary of State for Scotland. Following the establishment of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, most of its work was transferred to the newly established Scottish Executive, with a small residue of functions retained by the Scotland Office.
  4. Scottish Government
    
    The Scottish Government is the devolved government of Scotland. It was formed in 1999 as the Scottish Executive following the 1997 referendum on Scottish devolution.
  5. Edinburgh
    
    Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian, it is located in Lothian on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth. Edinburgh is Scotland's second-most populous city, after Glasgow, and the seventh-most populous city in the United Kingdom.
  6. Secretary of State for Wales
    
    The secretary of state for Wales, also referred to as the Welsh secretary, is a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, with responsibility for the Wales Office. The incumbent is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, 19th in the ministerial ranking.
  7. Senedd
    
    The Senedd, officially known as the Welsh Parliament in English and Senedd Cymru in Welsh, is the devolved, unicameral legislature of Wales. A democratically elected body, it makes laws for Wales, agrees certain taxes and scrutinises the Welsh Government. It is a bilingual institution, with both Welsh and English being the official languages of its business. From its creation in May 1999 until May 2020, the Senedd was known as the National Assembly for Wales.
1997
1. China resumes sovereignty over the city-state of Hong Kong, ending 156 years of British colonial rule. The handover ceremony is attended by British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Charles, Prince of Wales, Chinese President Jiang Zemin and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright.
  1. Handover of Hong Kong
    
    Sovereignty of Hong Kong was transferred from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China (PRC) at midnight on 1 July 1997. This event ended 156 years of British rule in the former colony. Hong Kong was established as a special administrative region of China (SAR) for 50 years, maintaining its own economic and governing systems from those of mainland China during this time, although influence from the central government in Beijing increased after the passing of the Hong Kong national security law in 2020.
  2. Colonialism
    
    Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their religion, language, economics, and other cultural practices. The foreign administrators rule the territory in pursuit of their interests, seeking to benefit from the colonised region's people and resources. It is associated with but distinct from imperialism.
  3. Tony Blair
    
    Sir Anthony Charles Lynton Blair is a British former politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He previously served as Leader of the Opposition from 1994 to 1997, and had served in various shadow cabinet posts from 1987 to 1994. Blair was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007. He is the second longest serving prime minister in modern history after Margaret Thatcher, and is the longest serving Labour politician to have held the office.
  4. Charles III
    
    Charles III is King of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms. He was the longest-serving heir apparent and, at age 73, became the oldest person to accede to the British throne following the death of his mother, Elizabeth II, on 8 September 2022.
  5. Jiang Zemin
    
    Jiang Zemin was a Chinese politician who served as general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1989 to 2002, as chairman of the Central Military Commission from 1989 to 2004, and as president of China from 1993 to 2003. Jiang was the core leader of the third generation of Chinese leadership, one of only four core leaders alongside Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, and Xi Jinping.
  6. Madeleine Albright
    
    Madeleine Jana Korbel Albright was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as the 64th United States secretary of state from 1997 to 2001. A member of the Democratic Party, Albright was the first woman to hold that post.
1991
1. Cold War: The Warsaw Pact is officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague.
  1. Cold War
    
    The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on its starting and ending points, but the period is generally considered to span from the announcement of the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947 to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991. The term cold war is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in 1945. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching embargoes, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race.
  2. Warsaw Pact
    
    The Warsaw Pact (WP) or Treaty of Warsaw, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant defensive alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO). The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the regional economic organization for the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of West Germany into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1955 as per the London and Paris Conferences of 1954.
  3. Prague
    
    Prague is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate oceanic climate, with relatively warm summers and chilly winters.
1990
1. German reunification: East Germany accepts the Deutsche Mark as its currency, thus uniting the economies of East and West Germany.
  1. German reunification
    
    German reunification was a geo-political event on 3 October 1990 by which the German Democratic Republic was dissolved and its territory became part of the Federal Republic of Germany to form present-day Germany.
  2. East Germany
    
    East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic, was a country that existed from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990. In these years the state was a part of the Eastern Bloc in the Cold War. Commonly described as a communist state, it described itself as a socialist "workers' and peasants' state". Its territory was administered and occupied by Soviet forces following the end of World War II—the Soviet occupation zone of the Potsdam Agreement, bounded on the east by the Oder–Neisse line. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin but did not include it and West Berlin remained outside the jurisdiction of the GDR. Most scholars and academics describe the GDR as a totalitarian dictatorship.
  3. Deutsche Mark
    
    The Deutsche Mark, abbreviated "DM" or "D-Mark", was the official currency of West Germany from 1948 until 1990 and later the unified Germany from 1990 until the adoption of the euro in 2002. In English, it was typically called the "Deutschmark". One Deutsche Mark was divided into 100 pfennigs.
1987
1. The American radio station WFAN in New York City is launched as the world's first all-sports radio station.
  1. WFAN (AM)
    
    WFAN is a commercial radio station licensed to New York, New York, carrying a sports radio format known as "Sports Radio 66 AM and 101.9 FM" or "The FAN". Owned by Audacy, Inc., the station serves the New York metropolitan area while its 50,000-watt clear channel signal can be heard at night throughout much of the eastern United States and Canada. WFAN's studios are located in the Hudson Square neighborhood of lower Manhattan and its transmitter is located on High Island in the Bronx. In addition to a standard analog transmission, WFAN is simulcast over WFAN-FM, and is available online via Audacy.
  2. Sports radio
    
    Sports radio is a radio format devoted entirely to discussion and broadcasting of sporting events. A widespread programming genre that has a narrow audience appeal, sports radio is characterized by an often-boisterous on-air style and extensive debate and analysis by both hosts and callers. Many sports talk stations also carry play-by-play of local sports teams as part of their regular programming. Hosted by Bill Mazer, the first sports talk radio show in history launched in March 1964 on New York's WNBC (AM).
1984
1. The PG-13 rating is introduced by the MPAA.
  1. Motion Picture Association film rating system
    
    The Motion Picture Association film rating system is used in the United States and its territories to rate a motion picture's suitability for certain audiences based on its content. The system and the ratings applied to individual motion pictures are the responsibility of the Motion Picture Association (MPA), previously known as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) from 1945 to 2019. The MPA rating system is a voluntary scheme that is not enforced by law; films can be exhibited without a rating, although most theaters refuse to exhibit non-rated or NC-17 rated films. Non-members of the MPA may also submit films for rating. Other media, such as television programs, music and video games, are rated by other entities such as the TV Parental Guidelines, the RIAA and the ESRB, respectively.
  2. Motion Picture Association
    
    The Motion Picture Association (MPA) is an American trade association representing the five major film studios of the United States, as well as the video streaming service Netflix. Founded in 1922 as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) and known as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) from 1945 until September 2019, its original goal was to ensure the viability of the American film industry. In addition, the MPA established guidelines for film content which resulted in the creation of the Motion Picture Production Code in 1930. This code, also known as the Hays Code, was replaced by a voluntary film rating system in 1968, which is managed by the Classification and Rating Administration (CARA).
1983
1. A North Korean Ilyushin Il-62M jet en route to Conakry Airport in Guinea crashes into the Fouta Djallon mountains in Guinea-Bissau, killing all 23 people on board.
  1. North Korea
    
    North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu (Amnok) and Tumen rivers, and South Korea to the south at the Korean Demilitarized Zone. North Korea's border with South Korea is a disputed border as both countries claim the entirety of the Korean Peninsula. The country's western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eastern border is defined by the Sea of Japan. North Korea, like its southern counterpart, claims to be the legitimate government of the entire peninsula and adjacent islands. Pyongyang is the capital and largest city.
  2. Ilyushin Il-62
    
    The Ilyushin Il-62 is a Soviet long-range narrow-body jetliner conceived in 1960 by Ilyushin. As successor to the popular turboprop Il-18 and with capacity for almost 200 passengers and crew, the Il-62 was the world's largest jet airliner when first flown in 1963. One of four pioneering long-range designs, it was the first such type to be operated by the Soviet Union and a number of allied nations.
  3. Ahmed Sékou Touré International Airport
    
    Ahmed Sékou Touré International Airport, also known as Gbessia International Airport, is an airport serving Conakry, capital of the Republic of Guinea in West Africa. It parallels the south shore of the Kaloum Peninsula approximately five kilometers from its tip. Autoroute Fidel Castro connects the airport to Conakry proper.
  4. Guinea
    
    Guinea, officially the Republic of Guinea, is a coastal country in West Africa. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Guinea-Bissau to the northwest, Senegal to the north, Mali to the northeast, Cote d'Ivoire to the southeast, and Sierra Leone and Liberia to the south. It is sometimes referred to as Guinea-Conakry after its capital Conakry, to distinguish it from other territories in the eponymous region such as Guinea-Bissau and Equatorial Guinea. It has a population of 13.5 million and an area of 245,857 square kilometres (94,926 sq mi).
  5. 1983 Chosonminhang Ilyushin Il-62 crash
    
    The 1983 Chosonminhang Il-62 crash occurred on 1 July 1983 when an Ilyushin Il-62M being operated by the flag carrier airline of North Korea, Chosonminhang, crashed into mountainous terrain in the West African country of Guinea. All 23 people aboard were killed. The aircraft was flying from Pyongyang with construction cargo and numerous workers ahead of the 1984 Organization of African Unity summit due to take place the following year. It remains the deadliest aviation crash in Guinean history, and was the tenth operational loss of an Il-62 since its introduction.
  6. Fouta Djallon
    
    Fouta Djallon is a highland region in the center of Guinea, roughly corresponding with Middle Guinea, in West Africa.
  7. Guinea-Bissau
    
    Guinea-Bissau, officially the Republic of Guinea-Bissau, is a country in West Africa that covers 36,125 square kilometres (13,948 sq mi) with an estimated population of 1,726,000. It borders Senegal to the north and Guinea to the south-east.
2. The Ministry of State Security is established as China's principal intelligence agency
  1. Ministry of State Security (China)
    
    The Ministry of State Security is the principal civilian intelligence, security and secret police agency of the People's Republic of China, responsible for counterintelligence, foreign intelligence and political security. The MSS is active in industrial espionage and adept at cyber espionage. Its military counterpart is the Intelligence Bureau of the Joint Staff Department. Described as one of the most secretive intelligence organizations in the world, it is headquartered in Beijing with subordinate branches at the provincial, city, municipality and township levels throughout China.
  2. Intelligence agency
    
    An intelligence agency is a government agency responsible for the collection, analysis, and exploitation of information in support of law enforcement, national security, military, public safety, and foreign policy objectives.
1980
1. "O Canada" officially becomes the national anthem of Canada.
  1. O Canada
    
    "O Canada" is the national anthem of Canada. The song was originally commissioned by Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Théodore Robitaille for the 1880 Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony; Calixa Lavallée composed the music, after which words were written by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The original lyrics were in French; an English translation was published in 1906. Multiple English versions ensued, with Robert Stanley Weir's version in 1908 gaining the most popularity, eventually serving as the basis for the official lyrics enacted by Parliament. Weir's lyrics have been revised three times, most recently when An Act to amend the National Anthem Act (gender) was enacted in 2018. The French lyrics remain unaltered. "O Canada" had served as a de facto national anthem since 1939, officially becoming the country's national anthem in 1980 when Canada's National Anthem Act received royal assent and became effective on July 1 as part of that year's Dominion Day celebrations.
  2. National anthem
    
    A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. American, Central Asian, and European nations tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a more simplistic fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them ; their constituencies' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states.
1979
1. Sony introduced the Walkman, a portable audio player that changed listening habits by offering users the ability to play one's own choice of music.
  1. Sony
    
    Sony Group Corporation , commonly stylized as SONY, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. As a major technology company, it operates as one of the world's largest manufacturers of consumer and professional electronic products, the largest video game console company and the largest video game publisher. Through Sony Entertainment Inc, it is one of the largest music companies and the third largest film studio, making it one of the most comprehensive media companies. It is the largest technology and media conglomerate in Japan. It is also recognized as the most cash-rich Japanese company, with net cash reserves of ¥2 trillion.
  2. Walkman
    
    Walkman, stylised as WALKMAN (ウォークマン), is a brand of portable audio players manufactured and marketed by Japanese technology company Sony since 1979. The original Walkman was a portable cassette player and its popularity made "walkman" an unofficial term for personal stereos of any producer or brand. By 2010, when production stopped, Sony had built about 200 million cassette-based Walkmans.
2. Sony introduces the Walkman.
  1. Sony
    
    Sony Group Corporation , commonly stylized as SONY, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. As a major technology company, it operates as one of the world's largest manufacturers of consumer and professional electronic products, the largest video game console company and the largest video game publisher. Through Sony Entertainment Inc, it is one of the largest music companies and the third largest film studio, making it one of the most comprehensive media companies. It is the largest technology and media conglomerate in Japan. It is also recognized as the most cash-rich Japanese company, with net cash reserves of ¥2 trillion.
  2. Walkman
    
    Walkman, stylised as WALKMAN (ウォークマン), is a brand of portable audio players manufactured and marketed by Japanese technology company Sony since 1979. The original Walkman was a portable cassette player and its popularity made "walkman" an unofficial term for personal stereos of any producer or brand. By 2010, when production stopped, Sony had built about 200 million cassette-based Walkmans.
1978
1. The Northern Territory in Australia is granted self-government.
  1. Northern Territory
    
    The Northern Territory is an Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory shares its borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, and Queensland to the east. To the north, the territory looks out to the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria, including Western New Guinea and other islands of the Indonesian archipelago.
1976
1. Portugal grants autonomy to Madeira.
  1. Madeira
    
    Madeira, officially the Autonomous Region of Madeira, is one of two autonomous regions of Portugal, the other being the Azores. It is an archipelago situated in the North Atlantic Ocean, in a region known as Macaronesia, just under 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north of the Canary Islands and 520 kilometres (320 mi) west of the Kingdom of Morocco. Madeira is geologically located on the African Tectonic Plate, notwithstanding being culturally, sociologically, economically and politically European as it is its southern archipelago neighbor. Its population was 251,060 in 2021. The capital of Madeira is Funchal, which is located on the main island's south coast.
1972
1. The first Gay pride march in England takes place.
  1. LGBT pride
    
    LGBT pride is the promotion of the self-affirmation, dignity, equality, and increased visibility of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people as a social group. Pride, as opposed to shame and social stigma, is the predominant outlook that bolsters most LGBT rights movements. Pride has lent its name to LGBT-themed organizations, institutes, foundations, book titles, periodicals, a cable TV station, and the Pride Library.
  2. Pride in London
    
    Pride in London is an annual LGBT pride festival and parade held each summer in London, England. The event, which was formerly run by Pride London, is sometimes referred to as London Pride.
1968
1. The United States Central Intelligence Agency's Phoenix Program is officially established.
  1. Central Intelligence Agency
    
    The Central Intelligence Agency, known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT) and performing covert actions. As a principal member of the United States Intelligence Community (IC), the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is primarily focused on providing intelligence for the President and Cabinet of the United States. President Harry S. Truman had created the Central Intelligence Group under the direction of a Director of Central Intelligence by presidential directive on January 22, 1946, and this group was transformed into the Central Intelligence Agency by implementation of the National Security Act of 1947.
  2. Phoenix Program
    
    The Phoenix Program was designed and initially coordinated by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the Vietnam War, involving the American, Australian, and South Vietnamese militaries. In 1969, CIA responsibility was phased out, and the program was put under the authority of the Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS).
2. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons is signed in Washington, D.C., London and Moscow by sixty-two countries.
  1. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
    
    The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in Geneva, Switzerland.
  2. Washington, D.C.
    
    Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia, also known as just Washington or simply D.C., is the capital city and federal district of the United States. It is located on the east bank of the Potomac River, which forms its southwestern and southern border with the U.S. state of Virginia, and it shares a land border with the U.S. state of Maryland on its other sides. The city was named for George Washington, a Founding Father and the first president of the United States, and the federal district is named after Columbia, the female personification of the nation. As the seat of the U.S. federal government and several international organizations, the city is an important world political capital. It is one of the most visited cities in the U.S. with over 20 million annual visitors as of 2016.
  3. London
    
    London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for two millennia. The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and retains its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament. Since the 19th century, the name "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which largely comprises Greater London, governed by the Greater London Authority.
  4. Moscow
    
    Moscow is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million residents within the city limits, over 17 million residents in the urban area, and over 20 million residents in the metropolitan area. The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometers (970 sq mi), while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometers (2,275 sq mi), and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometers (10,000 sq mi). Moscow is among the world's largest cities; being the most populous city entirely in Europe, the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe, and the largest city by land area on the European continent.
3. Formal separation of the United Auto Workers from the AFL–CIO in the United States.
  1. United Auto Workers
    
    The International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, better known as the United Auto Workers (UAW), is an American labor union that represents workers in the United States and Canada. It was founded as part of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in the 1930s and grew rapidly from 1936 to the 1950s. The union played a major role in the liberal wing of the Democratic Party under the leadership of Walter Reuther. It was known for gaining high wages and pensions for auto workers, but it was unable to unionize auto plants built by foreign-based car makers in the South after the 1970s, and it went into a steady decline in membership; reasons for this included increased automation, decreased use of labor, movements of manufacturing, and increased globalization.
  2. AFL–CIO
    
    The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL–CIO) is the largest federation of unions in the United States. It is made up of 56 national and international unions, together representing more than 12 million active and retired workers. The AFL–CIO engages in substantial political spending and activism, typically in support of progressive and pro-labor policies.
1967
1. Merger Treaty: The European Community is formally created out of a merger between the Common Market, the European Coal and Steel Community, and the European Atomic Energy Commission.
  1. Merger Treaty
    
    The Merger Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Brussels, was a European treaty which unified the executive institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) and the European Economic Community (EEC). The treaty was signed in Brussels on 8 April 1965 and came into force on 1 July 1967. It set out that the Commission of the European Communities should replace the High Authority of the ECSC, the Commission of the EEC and the Commission of Euratom, and that the Council of the European Communities should replace the Special Council of Ministers of the ECSC, the Council of the EEC and the Council of Euratom. Although each Community remained legally independent, they shared common institutions and were together known as the European Communities. This treaty is regarded by some as the real beginning of the modern European Union.
  2. European Economic Community
    
    The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organization created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, aiming to foster economic integration among its member states. It was subsequently renamed the European Community (EC) upon becoming integrated into the first pillar of the newly formed European Union in 1993. In the popular language, however, the singular European Community was sometimes inaccuratelly used in the wider sense of the plural European Communities, in spite of the latter designation covering all the three constituent entities of the first pillar.
  3. European Coal and Steel Community
    
    The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was a European organization created after World War II to regulate the coal and steel industries. It was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris, signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The ECSC was an international organization based on the principle of supranationalism, and started a process of integration which ultimately led to the creation of the European Union.
  4. European Atomic Energy Community
    
    The European Atomic Energy Community is an international organisation established by the Euratom Treaty on 25 March 1957 with the original purpose of creating a specialist market for nuclear power in Europe, by developing nuclear energy and distributing it to its member states while selling the surplus to non-member states. However, over the years its scope has been considerably increased to cover a large variety of areas associated with nuclear power and ionising radiation as diverse as safeguarding of nuclear materials, radiation protection and construction of the International Fusion Reactor ITER.
1966
1. The first color television transmission in Canada takes place from Toronto.
  1. Color television
    
    Color television or Colour television is a television transmission technology that includes color information for the picture, so the video image can be displayed in color on the television set. It improves on the monochrome or black-and-white television technology, which displays the image in shades of gray (grayscale). Television broadcasting stations and networks in most parts of the world upgraded from black-and-white to color transmission between the 1960s and the 1980s. The invention of color television standards was an important part of the history and technology of television.
1963
1. ZIP codes are introduced for United States mail.
  1. ZIP Code
    
    A ZIP Code is a postal code used by the United States Postal Service (USPS). Introduced on July 1, 1963, the basic format consisted of five digits. In 1983, an extended ZIP+4 code was introduced; it included the five digits of the ZIP Code, followed by a hyphen and four digits that designated a more specific location.
  2. United States Postal Service
    
    The United States Postal Service (USPS), also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service, is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the U.S., including its insular areas and associated states. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the U.S. Constitution. The USPS, as of 2021, has 516,636 career employees and 136,531 non-career employees.
2. The British Government admits that former diplomat Kim Philby had worked as a Soviet agent.
  1. Kim Philby
    
    Harold Adrian Russell "Kim" Philby was a British intelligence officer and a double agent for the Soviet Union. In 1963 he was revealed to be a member of the Cambridge Five, a spy ring which had divulged British secrets to the Soviets during World War II and in the early stages of the Cold War. Of the five, Philby is believed to have been most successful in providing secret information to the Soviets.
  2. Soviet Union
    
    The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national republics; in practice, both its government and its economy were highly centralized until its final years. It was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with the city of Moscow serving as its capital as well as that of its largest and most populous republic: the Russian SFSR. Other major cities included Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent, Alma-Ata, and Novosibirsk. It was the largest country in the world, covering over 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500 sq mi) and spanning eleven time zones.
  3. Espionage
    
    Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or confidential information (intelligence) from non-disclosed sources or divulging of the same without the permission of the holder of the information for a tangible benefit. A person who commits espionage is called an espionage agent or spy. Any individual or spy ring, in the service of a government, company, criminal organization, or independent operation, can commit espionage. The practice is clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome. In some circumstances, it may be a legal tool of law enforcement and in others, it may be illegal and punishable by law.
1962
1. Independence of Rwanda and Burundi.
  1. Rwanda
    
    Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is highly elevated, giving it the soubriquet "land of a thousand hills", with its geography dominated by mountains in the west and savanna to the southeast, with numerous lakes throughout the country. The climate is temperate to subtropical, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons each year. Rwanda has a population of over 12.6 million living on 26,338 km2 (10,169 sq mi) of land, and is the most densely populated mainland African country; among countries larger than 10,000 km2, it is the fifth most densely populated country in the world. One million people live in the capital and largest city Kigali.
  2. Burundi
    
    Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and East Africa. It is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border. The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura, the latter being the country's largest city.
1960
1. Ghana became a republic, with Kwame Nkrumah as its first president.
  1. Kwame Nkrumah
    
    Kwame Nkrumah was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He was the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana, having led the Gold Coast to independence from Britain in 1957. An influential advocate of Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity and winner of the Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union in 1962.
  2. President of Ghana
    
    The president of the Republic of Ghana is the elected head of state and head of government of Ghana, as well as commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces. The current president of Ghana is Nana Akufo-Addo, who won the 2020 presidential election against former president, John Dramani Mahama, by a margin of 4.23%. He was sworn into office for his second term on 7 January 2021.
2. The Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) gains its independence from Italy. Concurrently, it unites as scheduled with the five-day-old State of Somaliland (the former British Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic.
  1. Trust Territory of Somaliland
    
    The Trust Territory of Somaliland, officially the "Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian administration", was a United Nations Trust Territory situated in present-day Somalia. Its capital was Mogadishu and was administered by Italy from 1950 to 1960, following the dissolution of the former British Military Administration. It gained independence in 1960.
  2. Italian Somaliland
    
    Italian Somalia, was a protectorate and later colony of the Kingdom of Italy in present-day Somalia. Ruled in the 19th century by the Somali Sultanates of Hobyo and Majeerteen in the north, and the Hiraab Imamate and Geledi Sultanate and the Biimaal Sultanate leading a resistance against the colonials in southern Somalia for decades. The territory was acquired in the 1880s by Italy through various treaties.
  3. State of Somaliland
    
    The State of Somaliland was a short-lived independent country in the territory of present-day unilaterally declared Republic of Somaliland. It existed on the territory of former British Somaliland for five days between 26 June 1960 and 1 July 1960, when it merged with the formerly Italian administered Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic.
  4. British Somaliland
    
    British Somaliland, officially the Somaliland Protectorate, was a British protectorate in present-day Somaliland. During its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Somalia, French Somali Coast and Abyssinia. From 1940 to 1941, it was occupied by the Italians and was part of Italian East Africa.
  5. Somali Republic
    
    The Somali Republic was a sovereign state composed of Somalia and Somaliland, following the unification of the Trust Territory of Somaliland and the State of Somaliland. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate administrations, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly and Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic. On 22 July 1960, Daar appointed Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister. On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. The new constitution was rejected by Somaliland.
3. Ghana becomes a republic and Kwame Nkrumah becomes its first President as Queen Elizabeth II ceases to be its head of state.
  1. Ghana
    
    Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Togo in the east. Ghana covers an area of 238,535 km2 (92,099 sq mi), spanning diverse biomes that range from coastal savannas to tropical rainforests. With nearly 31 million inhabitants, Ghana is the second-most populous country in West Africa, after Nigeria. The capital and largest city is Accra; other major cities are Kumasi, Tamale, and Sekondi-Takoradi.
  2. Republic
    
    A republic is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, the term was used to imply a state with a democratic or representative constitution, but more recently it has also been used of autocratic or dictatorial states not ruled by a monarch. It is now chiefly used to denote any non-monarchical state headed by an elected or appointed president.
  3. Kwame Nkrumah
    
    Kwame Nkrumah was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and revolutionary. He was the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana, having led the Gold Coast to independence from Britain in 1957. An influential advocate of Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity and winner of the Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union in 1962.
  4. President of Ghana
    
    The president of the Republic of Ghana is the elected head of state and head of government of Ghana, as well as commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces. The current president of Ghana is Nana Akufo-Addo, who won the 2020 presidential election against former president, John Dramani Mahama, by a margin of 4.23%. He was sworn into office for his second term on 7 January 2021.
  5. Elizabeth II
    
    Elizabeth II was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime, and was head of state of 15 realms at the time of her death. Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of any British monarch and the longest verified reign of any female monarch in history.
  6. Head of state
    
    A head of state is the public persona who officially embodies a state in its unity and legitimacy. Depending on the country's form of government and separation of powers, the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more.
1959
1. Specific values for the international yard, avoirdupois pound and derived units (e.g. inch, mile and ounce) are adopted after agreement between the US, the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries.
  1. Yard
    
    The yard is an English unit of length in both the British imperial and US customary systems of measurement equalling 3 feet or 36 inches. Since 1959 it has been by international agreement standardized as exactly 0.9144 meter. A distance of 1,760 yards is equal to 1 mile.
  2. Pound (mass)
    
    The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in British imperial and United States customary systems of measurement. Various definitions have been used; the most common today is the international avoirdupois pound, which is legally defined as exactly 0.45359237 kilograms, and which is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces. The international standard symbol for the avoirdupois pound is lb; an alternative symbol is lbm, #, and ℔ or ″̶.
  3. Ounce
    
    The ounce is any of several different units of mass, weight or volume and is derived almost unchanged from the uncia, an Ancient Roman unit of measurement.
  4. International yard and pound
    
    The international yard and pound are two units of measurement that were the subject of an agreement among representatives of six nations signed on 1 July 1959; the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The agreement defined the yard as exactly 0.9144 meters and the (avoirdupois) pound as exactly 0.45359237 kilograms.
  5. Commonwealth of Nations
    
    The Commonwealth of Nations, simply referred to as the Commonwealth, is a political association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire. The chief institutions of the organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat, which focuses on intergovernmental aspects, and the Commonwealth Foundation, which focuses on non-governmental relations amongst member states. Numerous organisations are associated with and operate within the Commonwealth.
1958
1. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation links television broadcasting across Canada via microwave.
  1. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
    
    The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, branded as CBC/Radio-Canada, is a Canadian public broadcaster for both radio and television. It is a federal Crown corporation that receives funding from the government. The English- and French-language service units of the corporation are commonly known as CBC and Radio-Canada, respectively.
  2. Television
    
    Television, sometimes shortened to TV, is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. The term can refer to a television set, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.
  3. Microwave
    
    Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter corresponding to frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz respectively. Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF bands. A more common definition in radio-frequency engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz. In all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band at minimum. Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO or EU designations.
2. Flooding of Canada's Saint Lawrence Seaway begins.
  1. St. Lawrence Seaway
    
    The St. Lawrence Seaway is a system of locks, canals, and channels in Canada and the United States that permits oceangoing vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes of North America, as far inland as Duluth, Minnesota, at the western end of Lake Superior. The seaway is named for the St. Lawrence River, which flows from Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean. Legally, the seaway extends from Montreal, Quebec, to Lake Erie, and includes the Welland Canal. Ships from the Atlantic Ocean are able to reach ports in all five of the Great Lakes.
1957
1. The International Geophysical Year begins.
  1. International Geophysical Year
    
    The International Geophysical Year was an international scientific project that lasted from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958. It marked the end of a long period during the Cold War when scientific interchange between East and West had been seriously interrupted. Sixty-seven countries participated in IGY projects, although one notable exception was the mainland People's Republic of China, which was protesting against the participation of the Republic of China (Taiwan). East and West agreed to nominate the Belgian Marcel Nicolet as secretary general of the associated international organization.
1949
1. The merger of two princely states of India, Cochin and Travancore, into the state of Thiru-Kochi (later re-organized as Kerala) in the Indian Union ends more than 1,000 years of princely rule by the Cochin royal family.
  1. Kochi
    
    Kochi, also known as Cochin is a major port city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala and is commonly referred to as Ernakulam. Kochi is the most densely populated city in Kerala. As of 2011, it has a corporation limit population of 677,381 within an area of 94.88 km2 and a total urban population of more than of 2.1 million within an area of 440 km2, making it the largest and the most populous metropolitan area in Kerala. Kochi city is also part of the Greater Cochin region and is classified as a Tier-II city by the Government of India. The civic body that governs the city is the Kochi Municipal Corporation, which was constituted in the year 1967, and the statutory bodies that oversee its development are the Greater Cochin Development Authority (GCDA) and the Goshree Islands Development Authority (GIDA). The current metropolitan limits of Kochi include the mainland Ernakulam, Fort Kochi, the suburbs of Edapally, Kalamassery, Aluva and Kakkanad to the northeast; Tripunithura to the southeast; and a group of islands closely scattered in the Vembanad Lake.
  2. Travancore
    
    The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At its zenith, the kingdom covered most of the south of modern-day Kerala, and the southernmost part of modern-day Tamil Nadu with the Thachudaya Kaimal's enclave of Irinjalakuda Koodalmanikyam temple in the neighbouring Kingdom of Cochin. However Tangasseri area of Kollam city and Anchuthengu near Attingal in Thiruvananthapuram district, were British colonies and were part of the Malabar District until 30 June 1927, and Tirunelveli district from 1 July 1927 onwards. Travancore merged with the erstwhile princely state of Cochin to form Travancore-Cochin in 1950. The five Tamil-majority Taluks of Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, and Sengottai were transferred from Travancore-Cochin to Madras State in 1956. The Malayalam-speaking regions of Travancore-Cochin merged with the Malabar District and the Kasaragod taluk of the South Canara district in Madras State to form the modern Malayalam-state of Kerala on 1 November 1956, according to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 passed by the Government of India.
  3. Travancore–Cochin
    
    Travancore–Cochin, or Thiru–Kochi, was a short-lived state of India (1949–1956). It was originally called United State of Travancore and Cochin following the merger of two former kingdoms, Travancore and Cochin on 1 July 1949. Its original capital was Thiruvananthapuram. It was renamed State of Travancore–Cochin in January 1950. Travancore merged with erstwhile princely state of Cochin to form Travancore–Cochin in 1950. The five Tamil-majority Taluks of Vilavancode, Kalkulam, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, and Sengottai were transferred from Travancore-Cochin to Madras State in 1956. The Malayalam-speaking regions of the Travancore–Cochin merged with the Malabar District and the Kasaragod Taluk of South Canara district in Madras State to form the modern Malayalam-state of Kerala on 1 November 1956, according to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 passed by the Government of India.
  4. Kerala
    
    Kerala is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Canara, and Thiruvithamkoor. Spread over 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area. It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census, Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population. It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.
  5. Kingdom of Cochin
    
    The Kingdom of Cochin, named after its capital in the city of Kochi (Cochin), was a kingdom in the central part of present-day Kerala state. It commenced at the early part of the 12th century and continued to rule until 1949, when monarchy was abolished by the dominion of India.
1948
1. The first flight departed New York City's John F. Kennedy International Airport, then known as New York International Airport.
  1. John F. Kennedy International Airport
    
    John F. Kennedy International Airport is the main international airport serving New York City. The airport is the busiest of the seven airports in the New York airport system, the 13th-busiest airport in the United States, and the busiest international air passenger gateway into North America. Over 90 airlines operate from the airport, with nonstop or direct flights to destinations in all six inhabited continents.
2. Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Quaid-i-Azam) inaugurates Pakistan's central bank, the State Bank of Pakistan.
  1. Muhammad Ali Jinnah
    
    Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a barrister, politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as the leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until the inception of Pakistan on 14 August 1947, and then as the Dominion of Pakistan's first governor-general until his death.
  2. Central bank
    
    A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages the currency and monetary policy of a state or formal monetary union, and oversees their commercial banking system. In contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on increasing the monetary base. Most central banks also have supervisory and regulatory powers to ensure the stability of member institutions, to prevent bank runs, and to discourage reckless or fraudulent behavior by member banks.
  3. State Bank of Pakistan
    
    The State Bank of Pakistan (SBP) is the Central Bank of Pakistan. Its Constitution, as originally laid down in the State Bank of Pakistan Order 1948, remained basically unchanged until 1 January 1974, when the bank was Nationalized and the scope of its functions was considerably enlarged. The State Bank of Pakistan Act 1956, with subsequent amendments, forms the basis of its operations today. The headquarters are located in the financial capital of the country in Karachi. The bank has a fully owned subsidiary with the name SBP Banking Services Corporation (SBP-BSC), the operational arm of the Central Bank with Branch Office in 16 cities across Pakistan, including the capital Islamabad and the four Provincial Capitals Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta. The State Bank of Pakistan has other fully owned subsidiaries as well: National Institute of Banking and Finance, the training arm of the bank providing training to Commercial Banks, the Deposit Protection Corporation, and ownership of the Pakistan Security Printing Corporation.
1947
1. The Philippine Air Force is established.
  1. Philippine Air Force
    
    The Philippine Air Force (PAF) is the aerial warfare service branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Initially formed as part of the Philippine Army, the PAF is responsible for both defending the Philippine airspace, and conducting aerial operations throughout the Philippines, such as close air support operations, combat air patrols, aerial reconnaissance missions, airlift operations, helicopter tactical operations and aerial humanitarian operations. The PAF is headquartered at the Villamor Air Base in Pasay, and is headed by the Chief of the Air Force, who also serves as the branch's highest-ranking military officer.
1946
1. Crossroads Able is the first postwar nuclear weapon test.
  1. Operation Crossroads
    
    Operation Crossroads was a pair of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. They were the first nuclear weapon tests since Trinity in July 1945, and the first detonations of nuclear devices since the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. The purpose of the tests was to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships.
1943
1. The municipality of Tokyo City was dissolved, with its territory forming the special wards of the newly established Tokyo Metropolis (government building pictured).
  1. Tokyo City
    
    Tokyo City was a municipality in Japan and part of Tokyo-fu which existed from 1 May 1889 until its merger with its prefecture on 1 July 1943. The historical boundaries of Tokyo City are now occupied by the Special Wards of Tokyo. The new merged government became what is now Tokyo, also known as the Tokyo Metropolis, or, ambiguously, Tokyo Prefecture.
  2. Special wards of Tokyo
    
    Special wards are a special form of municipalities in Japan under the 1947 Local Autonomy Law. They are city-level wards: primary subdivisions of a prefecture with municipal autonomy largely comparable to other forms of municipalities.
  3. Tokyo
    
    Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.468 million residents as of 2018; the city proper has a population of 13.99 million people. Located at the head of Tokyo Bay, the prefecture forms part of the Kantō region on the central coast of Honshu, Japan's largest island. Tokyo serves as Japan's economic center and is the seat of both the Japanese government and the Emperor of Japan.
2. The City of Tokyo and the Prefecture of Tokyo are both replaced by the Tokyo Metropolis.
  1. Tokyo City
    
    Tokyo City was a municipality in Japan and part of Tokyo-fu which existed from 1 May 1889 until its merger with its prefecture on 1 July 1943. The historical boundaries of Tokyo City are now occupied by the Special Wards of Tokyo. The new merged government became what is now Tokyo, also known as the Tokyo Metropolis, or, ambiguously, Tokyo Prefecture.
  2. Tokyo
    
    Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.468 million residents as of 2018; the city proper has a population of 13.99 million people. Located at the head of Tokyo Bay, the prefecture forms part of the Kantō region on the central coast of Honshu, Japan's largest island. Tokyo serves as Japan's economic center and is the seat of both the Japanese government and the Emperor of Japan.
1942
1. World War II: First Battle of El Alamein.
  1. World War II
    
    World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. World War II was a total war that directly involved more than 100 million personnel from more than 30 countries.
  2. First Battle of El Alamein
    
    The First Battle of El Alamein was a battle of the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War, fought in Egypt between Axis forces of the Panzer Army Africa and Allied forces of the Eighth Army.
2. The Australian Federal Government becomes the sole collector of income tax in Australia as State Income Tax is abolished.
  1. Australian Government
    
    The Australian Government, also known as the Commonwealth Government, is the national government of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Like other Westminster-style systems of government, the Australian Government is made up of three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial.
  2. Income tax in Australia
    
    Income tax in Australia is imposed by the federal government on the taxable income of individuals and corporations. State governments have not imposed income taxes since World War II. On individuals, income tax is levied at progressive rates, and at one of two rates for corporations. The income of partnerships and trusts is not taxed directly, but is taxed on its distribution to the partners or beneficiaries. Income tax is the most important source of revenue for government within the Australian taxation system. Income tax is collected on behalf of the federal government by the Australian Taxation Office.
1935
1. The first Grant Park Music Festival, the United States' only annual free outdoor classical music concert series, was held in Chicago's Grant Park.
  1. Grant Park Music Festival
    
    The Grant Park Music Festival is a ten-week classical music concert series held annually in Chicago, Illinois, United States. It features the Grant Park Symphony Orchestra and Grant Park Chorus along with guest performers and conductors, and claims to be the only free outdoor classical-music concert series in the US. The Festival is a non-profit organization. The Festival has been a Chicago tradition since 1931, when mayor Anton Cermak suggested free concerts to lift spirits of Chicagoans during the Great Depression. The tradition of symphonic Grant Park Music Festival concerts began in 1935.
  2. Classical music
    
    Classical music generally refers to the art music of the Western world, considered to be distinct from Western folk music or popular music traditions. It is sometimes distinguished as Western classical music, as the term "classical music" also applies to non-Western art music. Classical music is often characterized by formality and complexity in its musical form and harmonic organization, particularly with the use of polyphony. Since at least the ninth century it has been primarily a written tradition, spawning a sophisticated notational system, as well as accompanying literature in analytical, critical, historiographical, musicological and philosophical practices. A foundational component of Western Culture, classical music is frequently seen from the perspective of individual or groups of composers, whose compositions, personalities and beliefs have fundamentally shaped its history.
  3. Grant Park (Chicago)
    
    Grant Park is a large urban park 319 acres (1.29 km2) in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. Located within the city's central business district, the park's features include Millennium Park, Buckingham Fountain, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Museum Campus. Originally known as Lake Park, and dating from the city's founding, it was renamed in 1901 to honor US President Ulysses S. Grant. The park's area has been expanded several times through land reclamation, and was the focus of several disputes in the late 19th century and early 20th century over open space use. It is bordered on the north by Randolph Street, on the south by Roosevelt Road and McFetridge Drive, on the west by Michigan Avenue and on the east by Lake Michigan. The park contains performance venues, gardens, art work, sporting, and harbor facilities. It hosts public gatherings and several large annual events.
2. Regina, Saskatchewan police and Royal Canadian Mounted Police ambush strikers participating in the On-to-Ottawa Trek.
  1. Regina, Saskatchewan
    
    Regina is the capital city of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The city is the second-largest in the province, after Saskatoon, and is a commercial centre for southern Saskatchewan. As of the 2016 census, Regina had a city population of 215,106, and a Metropolitan Area population of 236,481. Statistics Canada has estimated the CMA's population to be 263,184 as of 2020. It is governed by Regina City Council. The city is surrounded by the Rural Municipality of Sherwood No. 159.
  2. Royal Canadian Mounted Police
    
    The Royal Canadian Mounted Police, commonly known in English as the Mounties is the federal and national police service of Canada. As police services are the constitutional responsibility of provinces and territories of Canada, the RCMP's primary responsibility is the enforcement of federal criminal law, and sworn members of the RCMP have jurisdiction as a peace officer in all provinces and territories of Canada. However, the service also provides police services under contract to eight of Canada's provinces, all three of Canada's territories, more than 150 municipalities, and 600 Indigenous communities. In addition to enforcing federal legislation and delivering local police services under contract, the RCMP is responsible for border integrity; overseeing Canadian peacekeeping missions involving police; managing the Canadian Firearms Program, which licenses and registers firearms and their owners; and the Canadian Police College, which provides police training to Canadian and international police services. The service has faced criticism for its broad mandate, and since the early 2020s, several governments, politicians, and scholars have recommended terminating the RCMP's contract policing program. Public Safety Minister Marco Mendicino was mandated to conduct a review of RCMP contract policing when he took office in 2022.
  3. On-to-Ottawa Trek
    
    The On-to-Ottawa Trek was a mass protest movement in Canada in 1935 sparked by unrest among unemployed single men in federal relief camps principally in Western Canada. Federal relief camps were brought in under Prime Minister R. B. Bennett’s government as a result of the Great Depression. The Great Depression crippled the Canadian economy and left one in nine citizens on relief. The relief, however, did not come free; the Bennett government ordered the Department of National Defence to organize work camps where single unemployed men were used to construct roads and other public works at a rate of twenty cents per day. The men in the relief camps were living in poor conditions with very low wages. The men decided to unite and, in 1933, led by Arthur "Slim" Evans, created the Workers' Unity League (WUL). The Workers' Unity League helped the men organize the Relief Camp Workers' Union.
1932
1. Australia's national broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, was formed.
  1. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
    
    The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) is the national broadcaster of Australia. It is principally funded by direct grants from the Australian Government and is administered by a government-appointed board. The ABC is a publicly-owned body that is politically independent and fully accountable, with its charter enshrined in legislation, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983. ABC Commercial, a profit-making division of the corporation, also helps to generate funding for content provision.
1931
1. United Airlines begins service (as Boeing Air Transport).
  1. United Airlines
    
    United Airlines, Inc., is a major American airline headquartered at the Willis Tower in Chicago, Illinois. United operates a large domestic and international route network spanning cities large and small across the United States and all six inhabited continents. Measured by fleet size and the number of routes, it is the third-largest airline in the world after its merger with Continental Airlines in 2010.
2. Wiley Post and Harold Gatty become the first people to circumnavigate the globe in a single-engined monoplane aircraft.
  1. Wiley Post
    
    Wiley Hardeman Post was a famed Native American aviator of Cherokee descent during the interwar period and the first pilot to fly solo around the world. Also known for his work in high-altitude flying, Post helped develop one of the first pressure suits and discovered the jet stream. On August 15, 1935, Post and American humorist Will Rogers were killed when Post's aircraft crashed on takeoff from a lagoon near Point Barrow in the Territory of Alaska.
  2. Harold Gatty
    
    Harold Charles Gatty was an Australian navigator and aviation pioneer. Charles Lindbergh called Gatty the "Prince of Navigators." In 1931, Gatty served as navigator, along with pilot Wiley Post, on the flight which set the record for aerial circumnavigation of the world, flying a distance of 15,747 miles (24,903 km) in a Lockheed Vega named the Winnie Mae, in 8 days, 15 hours and 51 minutes.
  3. Lockheed Vega
    
    The Lockheed Vega is an American six-passenger high-wing monoplane airliner built by the Lockheed Corporation starting in 1927. It became famous for its use by a number of record-breaking pilots who were attracted to the rugged and very long-range design. Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean in one, and Wiley Post used his to prove the existence of the jet stream after having flown around the world twice.
1927
1. The Singapore Improvement Trust was founded to oversee the construction of public housing in Singapore, where more than three quarters of residents live.
  1. Singapore Improvement Trust
    
    The Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) is a former government organisation that was responsible for urban planning and urban renewal in Singapore. Formally established in 1927 under the Singapore Improvement Ordinance, it was modelled after similar organisations in India. The SIT initially carried out back lane improvement schemes and marking out unsanitary buildings for demolition, but began constructing public housing from 1935. After 1945, the SIT initially focused its efforts on the repair of its residential developments. It resumed constructing public housing in 1947 but was unable to keep up with demand. The SIT was also involved in the development of a "Master Plan", which set out Singapore's developmental direction, from 1952 to 1958. In the late 1950s, plans were set out to replace the SIT with two departments—housing and planning—culminating in two bills that were passed in 1959. With the establishment of the successor organisations by the government of Singapore, the Housing and Development Authority and the Planning Authority, in 1960, the SIT was dissolved.
  2. Public housing in Singapore
    
    Public housing in Singapore is subsidised, built and managed by the Government of Singapore. Starting in the 1930s, the country's first public housing was built by the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) in a similar fashion to contemporaneous British public housing projects, and housing for the resettlement of squatters was built from the late 1950s. In the 1960s, under the SIT's successor the Housing and Development Board (HDB), public housing consisting of small units with basic amenities was constructed as quickly and cheaply as possible at high densities, and was used for resettlement schemes. From the late 1960s, housing programmes focused more on quality, public housing was built in new towns, and a scheme allowing residents to own their flats was introduced. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, more public housing options were provided for the middle class and efforts to increase community cohesion within housing estates were made. From the 1990s, the government began portraying public housing as an asset, introducing large-scale upgrading schemes and loosening regulations on the resale of public housing while additional housing programmes for the sandwich classes and elderly residents were introduced. Rising housing prices led to public housing being seen as an investment from the 2000s, and new technologies and eco-friendly features were incorporated into housing estates.
1923
1. The Parliament of Canada suspends all Chinese immigration.
  1. Parliament of Canada
    
    The Parliament of Canada is the federal legislature of Canada, seated at Parliament Hill in Ottawa, and is composed of three parts: the King, the Senate, and the House of Commons. By constitutional convention, the House of Commons is dominant, with the Senate rarely opposing its will. The Senate reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint and may initiate certain bills. The monarch or his representative, normally the governor general, provides royal assent to make bills into law.
  2. History of Chinese immigration to Canada
    
    There has been a significant history of Chinese immigration to Canada, with the first settlement of Chinese people in Canada being in the 1780s. The major periods of Chinese immigration would take place from 1858 to 1923 and 1947 to the present day, reflecting changes in the Canadian government's immigration policy.
1922
1. Seven of the sixteen American railroad labor organizations staged a nationwide strike (striking workers pictured) that lasted two months.
  1. List of American railway unions
    
    The following is a list of unions and brotherhoods playing a significant role in the railroad industry of the United States of America. Many of these entities changed names and merged over the years; this list is based upon the names current during the height of American railway unionism in the first decades of the 20th century.
  2. Great Railroad Strike of 1922
    
    The Great Railroad Strike of 1922, commonly known as the Railway Shopmen's Strike, was a nationwide strike of railroad workers in the United States. Launched on July 1, 1922, by seven of the sixteen railroad labor organizations in existence at the time, the strike continued into the month of August before collapsing. A sweeping judicial injunction by Judge James Herbert Wilkerson effectively brought the strike to an end on September 1, 1922.
2. The Great Railroad Strike of 1922 begins in the United States.
  1. Great Railroad Strike of 1922
    
    The Great Railroad Strike of 1922, commonly known as the Railway Shopmen's Strike, was a nationwide strike of railroad workers in the United States. Launched on July 1, 1922, by seven of the sixteen railroad labor organizations in existence at the time, the strike continued into the month of August before collapsing. A sweeping judicial injunction by Judge James Herbert Wilkerson effectively brought the strike to an end on September 1, 1922.
1921
1. The Chinese Communist Party is founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, with the help of the Far Eastern Bureau of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks), who seized power in Russia after the 1917 October Revolution, and the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Communist International.
  1. Chinese Communist Party
    
    The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang, and in 1949 Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Since then, the CCP has governed China with eight smaller parties within its United Front and has sole control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Each successive leader of the CCP has added their own theories to the party's constitution, which outlines the ideological beliefs of the party, collectively referred to as socialism with Chinese characteristics. As of 2022, the CCP has more than 96 million members, making it the second largest political party by party membership in the world after India's Bharatiya Janata Party. The Chinese public generally refers to the CCP as simply "the Party".
  2. Chen Duxiu
    
    Chen Duxiu was a Chinese revolutionary socialist, educator, philosopher and author, who co-founded the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) with Li Dazhao in 1921. From 1921 to 1927, he served as the Communist Party's first General Secretary. Chen was a leading figure in both the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and the May Fourth Movement for scientific and democratic developments in the early Republic of China. After his expulsion from the CCP in 1929, Chen was for a time the leader of China's Trotskyist movement.
  3. Li Dazhao
    
    Li Dazhao or Li Ta-chao was a Chinese intellectual and revolutionary who participated in the New Cultural Movement in the early years of the Republic of China, established in 1912. He co-founded the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) with Chen Duxiu in July 1921. He helped build a united front between the CCP and Sun Yat-sen's Nationalist Party (KMT) in early 1924. During the Northern Expedition, Li was arrested and then executed by warlord Zhang Zuolin in Beijing in 1927.
  4. Communist Party of the Soviet Union
    
    The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), also known by various other names during its history, was the founding and ruling party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990 when the Congress of People's Deputies modified Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, which had previously granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system. The party has its roots in the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). The RSDLP was founded in 1898, when Russia was ruled by an absolute monarchy. The broad anti-Tsarist ideology was the driving factor in its initial growth. Russians across the political spectrum flocked to the party, as Marxists, socialists, and centrists made up its ranks. Despite the Tsar's harsh oppression including imprisoning and even executing party members, the RSDLP continued to grow albeit underground. Initially the party operated in a unified and cohesive manner, but by 1900 cracks within party unity began to show.
1917
1. Chinese General Zhang Xun seizes control of Beijing and restores the monarchy, installing Puyi, last emperor of the Qing dynasty, to the throne. The restoration is reversed just shy of two weeks later, when Republican troops regain control of the capital.
  1. Zhang Xun
    
    Zhang Xun, courtesy name Shaoxuan (少軒), art name Songshoulaoren (松壽老人), nickname Bianshuai, was a Chinese general and Qing loyalist who attempted to restore the abdicated emperor Puyi in the Manchu Restoration of 1917. He also supported Yuan Shikai during his time as president.
  2. Beijing
    
    Beijing, alternatively romanized as Peking, is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 million residents. It has an administrative area of 16,410.5 km2 (6,336.1 sq mi), the third in the country after Guangzhou and Shanghai. It is located in Northern China, and is governed as a municipality under the direct administration of the State Council with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is mostly surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin to the southeast; together, the three divisions form the Jingjinji megalopolis and the national capital region of China.
  3. Manchu Restoration
    
    The Manchu Restoration or Dingsi Restoration, also known as Zhang Xun Restoration, or Xuantong Restoration, was an attempt to restore the Chinese monarchy by General Zhang Xun, whose army seized Beijing and briefly reinstalled the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, Puyi, to the throne. The restoration lasted just shy of two weeks, from July 1, 1917 to July 12, 1917, and was quickly reversed by Republican troops. Despite the uprising's popular name, almost all reactionary putschists were ethnic Han.
  4. Puyi
    
    Aisin-Gioro Puyi, courtesy name Yaozhi (曜之), was the last emperor of China as the eleventh and final Qing dynasty monarch. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate on 12 February 1912 during the Xinhai Revolution. His era name as Qing emperor, Xuantong, means "proclamation of unity". He was later installed as the Emperor Kangde (康德) of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo during World War II.
  5. Qing dynasty
    
    The Qing dynasty, officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaking ethnic group who unified other Jurchen tribes to form a new "Manchu" ethnic identity. The dynasty was officially proclaimed in 1636 in Manchuria. It seized control of Beijing in 1644, then later expanded its rule over the whole of China proper and Taiwan, and finally expanded into Inner Asia. The dynasty lasted until 1912 when it was overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution. In orthodox Chinese historiography, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The multiethnic Qing empire lasted for almost three centuries and assembled the territorial base for modern China. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the history of China and in 1790 the fourth-largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size. With 419,264,000 citizens in 1907, it was the world's most populous country at the time.
  6. Republic of China (1912–1949)
    
    The Republic of China (ROC), between 1912 and 1949, was a sovereign state recognised as the official designation of China when it was based on Mainland China, prior to the relocation of its central government to Taiwan as a result of the Chinese Civil War. At a population of 541 million in 1949, it was the world's most populous country. Covering 11.4 million square kilometres, it consisted of 35 provinces, 1 special administrative region, 2 regions, 12 special municipalities, 14 leagues, and 4 special banners. The People's Republic of China (PRC), which rules mainland China today, considers ROC as a country that ceased to exist since 1949; thus, the history of ROC before 1949 is often referred to as Republican Era of China. The ROC, now based in Taiwan, today considers itself a continuation of the country, thus calling the period of its mainland governance as the Mainland Period of the Republic of China in Taiwan.
1916
1. First World War: The first day of the Battle of Albert, the opening phase of the Battle of the Somme, became the bloodiest day in the British Army's history, with 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 deaths.
  1. World War I
    
    World War I or the First World War, often abbreviated as WWI or WW1, and referred to by some Anglophone authors as the "Great War" or the "War to End All Wars", was a global conflict which lasted from 1914 to 1918, and is considered one of the deadliest conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fighting occurring throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. An estimated 9 million soldiers were killed in combat, plus another 23 million wounded, while 5 million civilians died as a result of military action, hunger, and disease. Millions more died in genocides within the Ottoman Empire and in the 1918 influenza pandemic, which was exacerbated by the movement of combatants during the war.
  2. First day on the Somme
    
    The first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, was the beginning of the Battle of Albert (1–13 July), the name given by the British to the first two weeks of the 141 days of the Battle of the Somme in the First World War. Nine corps of the French Sixth Army and the British Fourth and Third armies attacked the German 2nd Army from Foucaucourt south of the Somme, northwards across the Somme and the Ancre to Serre and at Gommecourt, 2 mi (3.2 km) beyond, in the Third Army area. The objective of the attack was to capture the German first and second defensive positions from Serre south to the Albert–Bapaume road and the first position from the road south to Foucaucourt.
  3. Battle of Albert (1916)
    
    The Battle of Albert is the British name for the first two weeks of British–French offensive operations of the Battle of the Somme. The Allied preparatory artillery bombardment commenced on 24 June and the British–French infantry attacked on 1 July, on the south bank from Foucaucourt to the Somme and from the Somme north to Gommecourt, 2 mi (3.2 km) beyond Serre. The French Sixth Army and the right wing of the British Fourth Army inflicted a considerable defeat on the German 2nd Army but from near the Albert–Bapaume road to Gommecourt, the British attack was a disaster, where most of the c. 57,000 British casualties of the day were incurred. Against the wishes of General Joseph Joffre, General Sir Douglas Haig abandoned the offensive north of the road to reinforce the success in the south, where the British–French forces pressed forward through several intermediate lines closer to the German second position.
  4. Battle of the Somme
    
    The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British Empire and French Third Republic against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the upper reaches of the Somme, a river in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies. More than three million men fought in the battle of whom one million were wounded or killed, making it one of the deadliest battles in human history.
  5. British Army
    
    The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. As of 2022, the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurkhas, and 28,330 volunteer reserve personnel.
2. World War I: First day on the Somme: On the first day of the Battle of the Somme 19,000 soldiers of the British Army are killed and 40,000 wounded.
  1. World War I
    
    World War I or the First World War, often abbreviated as WWI or WW1, and referred to by some Anglophone authors as the "Great War" or the "War to End All Wars", was a global conflict which lasted from 1914 to 1918, and is considered one of the deadliest conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fighting occurring throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. An estimated 9 million soldiers were killed in combat, plus another 23 million wounded, while 5 million civilians died as a result of military action, hunger, and disease. Millions more died in genocides within the Ottoman Empire and in the 1918 influenza pandemic, which was exacerbated by the movement of combatants during the war.
  2. First day on the Somme
    
    The first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, was the beginning of the Battle of Albert (1–13 July), the name given by the British to the first two weeks of the 141 days of the Battle of the Somme in the First World War. Nine corps of the French Sixth Army and the British Fourth and Third armies attacked the German 2nd Army from Foucaucourt south of the Somme, northwards across the Somme and the Ancre to Serre and at Gommecourt, 2 mi (3.2 km) beyond, in the Third Army area. The objective of the attack was to capture the German first and second defensive positions from Serre south to the Albert–Bapaume road and the first position from the road south to Foucaucourt.
  3. Battle of the Somme
    
    The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British Empire and French Third Republic against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the upper reaches of the Somme, a river in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies. More than three million men fought in the battle of whom one million were wounded or killed, making it one of the deadliest battles in human history.
  4. British Army
    
    The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. As of 2022, the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurkhas, and 28,330 volunteer reserve personnel.
1915
1. Leutnant Kurt Wintgens of the then-named German Deutsches Heer's Fliegertruppe army air service achieves the first known aerial victory with a synchronized machine-gun armed fighter plane, the Fokker M.5K/MG Eindecker.
  1. Leutnant
    
    Leutnant is the lowest Junior officer rank in the armed forces the German-speaking of Germany (Bundeswehr), Austrian Armed Forces, and military of Switzerland.
  2. Kurt Wintgens
    
    Leutnant Kurt Wintgens was a German World War I fighter ace. He was the first military fighter pilot to score a victory over an opposing aircraft, while piloting an aircraft armed with a synchronized machine gun. Wintgens was the recipient of the Iron Cross and the Pour le Mérite.
  3. Imperial German Army
    
    The Imperial German Army (1871–1919), officially referred to as the German Army, was the unified ground and air force of the German Empire. It was established in 1871 with the political unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, and was dissolved in 1919, after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I (1914–1918). In the Federal Republic of Germany, the term Deutsches Heer identifies the German Army, the land component of the Bundeswehr.
  4. Luftstreitkräfte
    
    The Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte —known before October 1916 as Fliegertruppen —was the air arm of the Imperial German Army. In English-language sources it is usually referred to as the Imperial German Air Service, although that is not a literal translation of either name. German naval aviators of the Marine-Fliegerabteilung were an integral part of the Imperial German Navy. Both military branches operated aeroplanes, observation balloons and airships.
  5. Synchronization gear
    
    A synchronization gear was a device enabling a single-engine tractor configuration aircraft to fire its forward-firing armament through the arc of its spinning propeller without bullets striking the blades. This allowed the aircraft, rather than the gun, to be aimed at the target.
  6. Fokker E.I
    
    The Fokker E.I was the first fighter aircraft to enter service with the Fliegertruppe of the Deutsches Heer in World War I. Its arrival at the front in mid-1915 marked the start of a period known as the "Fokker Scourge" during which the E.I and its successors achieved a measure of air superiority over the Western Front.
1911
1. Germany despatches the gunship SMS Panther to Morocco, sparking the Agadir Crisis.
  1. SMS Panther
    
    SMS Panther was one of six Iltis-class gunboats of the Kaiserliche Marine and, like its sister ships, served in Germany's overseas colonies. The ship was launched on 1 April 1901 in the Kaiserliche Werft, Danzig. It had a crew of 9 officers and 121 men.
  2. Agadir Crisis
    
    The Agadir Crisis, Agadir Incident, or Second Moroccan Crisis was a brief crisis sparked by the deployment of a substantial force of French troops in the interior of Morocco in April 1911 and the deployment of the German gunboat SMS Panther to Agadir, a Moroccan Atlantic port. Germany did not object to France's expansion but wanted territorial compensation for itself. Berlin threatened warfare, sent a gunboat, and stirred up German nationalists. Negotiations between Berlin and Paris resolved the crisis on 4 November 1911: France took over Morocco as a protectorate in exchange for territorial concessions to German Cameroon from the French Congo.
1908
1. SOS is adopted as the international distress signal.
  1. SOS
    
    SOS is a Morse code distress signal, used internationally, that was originally established for maritime use. In formal notation SOS is written with an overscore line, to indicate that the Morse code equivalents for the individual letters of "SOS" are transmitted as an unbroken sequence of three dots / three dashes / three dots, with no spaces between the letters. In International Morse Code three dots form the letter "S" and three dashes make the letter "O", so "S O S" became a common way to remember the order of the dots and dashes.
  2. Distress signal
    
    A distress signal, also known as a distress call, is an internationally recognized means for obtaining help. Distress signals are communicated by transmitting radio signals, displaying a visually observable item or illumination, or making a sound audible from a distance.
1903
1. Start of first Tour de France bicycle race.
  1. 1903 Tour de France
    
    The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L'Auto, ancestor of the current daily, L'Équipe. It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2,428 km (1,509 mi), and was won by Maurice Garin.
1901
1. French government enacts its anti-clerical legislation Law of Association prohibiting the formation of new monastic orders without governmental approval.
1898
1. Spanish–American War: The Battle of San Juan Hill is fought in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba.
  1. Spanish–American War
    
    The Spanish–American War was a period of armed conflict between Spain and the United States. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to United States intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The war led to the United States emerging predominant in the Caribbean region, and resulted in U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions. It led to United States involvement in the Philippine Revolution and later to the Philippine–American War.
  2. Battle of San Juan Hill
    
    The Battle of San Juan Hill, also known as the Battle for the San Juan Heights, was a major battle of the Spanish–American War fought between an American force under the command of William Rufus Shafter and Joseph Wheeler against a Spanish force led by Arsenio Linares y Pombo. The battle proved to be one of the most significant battles of the war and, along with the Siege of Santiago, a decisive battle in deciding the fate of the United States Army campaign in Cuba. The American forces, outnumbering the Spanish defenders 16-to-one, charged upon the heights and dispersed the Spanish after suffering heavy casualties.
  3. Santiago de Cuba
    
    Santiago de Cuba is the second-largest city in Cuba and the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province. It lies in the southeastern area of the island, some 870 km (540 mi) southeast of the Cuban capital of Havana.
  4. Cuba
    
    Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic Ocean meet. Cuba is located east of the Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), south of both the American state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Hispaniola, and north of both Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. The official area of the Republic of Cuba is 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi) but a total of 350,730 km² including the exclusive economic zone. Cuba is the second-most populous country in the Caribbean after Haiti, with over 11 million inhabitants.
1890
1. Canada and Bermuda are linked by telegraph cable.
  1. Bermuda
    
    Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. The Bermuda archipelago consists of 181 islands with a total land area of 54 km2 (21 sq mi). The closest land outside the territory is in the US state of North Carolina, approximately 1,035 km (643 mi) to the west-northwest.
  2. Telegraphy
    
    Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not. Ancient signalling systems, although sometimes quite extensive and sophisticated as in China, were generally not capable of transmitting arbitrary text messages. Possible messages were fixed and predetermined and such systems are thus not true telegraphs.
1885
1. The United States terminates reciprocity and fishery agreement with Canada.
  1. Reciprocity (Canadian politics)
    
    Reciprocity, in 19th- and early 20th-century Canadian politics, meant free trade, the removal of protective tariffs on all natural resources between Canada and the United States. Reciprocity and free trade have been emotional issues in Canadian history, as they pitted two conflicting impulses: the desire for beneficial economic ties with the United States and the fear of closer economic ties leading to American domination and even annexation.
  2. Fishery
    
    Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life; or more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place. Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies and the oceans. About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem — causing declines in some populations.
2. The Congo Free State is established by King Leopold II of Belgium.
  1. Congo Free State
    
    The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo, was a large state and absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by and in a personal union with Leopold II of Belgium; it was not a part of, nor did it belong to, the Kingdom of Belgium, of which he was the constitutional monarch. Leopold was able to seize the region by convincing other European states at the Berlin Conference on Africa that he was involved in humanitarian and philanthropic work and would not tax trade. Via the International Association of the Congo, he was able to lay claim to most of the Congo Basin. On 29 May 1885, after the closure of the Berlin Conference, the king announced that he planned to name his possessions "the Congo Free State", an appellation which was not yet used at the Berlin Conference and which officially replaced "International Association of the Congo" on 1 August 1885. The Congo Free State operated as a separate nation from Belgium, in a personal union with its King. It was privately controlled by Leopold II, although he never personally visited the state.
  2. Leopold II of Belgium
    
    Leopold II was the second King of the Belgians from 1865 to 1909 and the self-made autocratic ruler of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908.
1881
1. The world's first international telephone call is made between St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada, and Calais, Maine, United States.
  1. Telephone call
    
    A telephone call is a connection over a telephone network between the called party and the calling party.
  2. St. Stephen, New Brunswick
    
    St. Stephen is a Canadian town in Charlotte County, New Brunswick, situated on the east bank of the St. Croix River around the intersection of New Brunswick Route 170 and the southern terminus of New Brunswick Route 3. The St. Croix River marks a section of the Canada–United States border, forming a natural border between Calais, Maine and St. Stephen. U.S. Route 1 parallels the St. Croix river for a few miles, and is accessed from St. Stephen by three cross-border bridges.
  3. Calais, Maine
    
    Calais is a city in Washington County, Maine, United States. As of the 2020 census, it had a population of 3,079, making Calais the third least-populous city in Maine. The city has three Canada–US border crossings over the St. Croix River connecting to St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada.
2. General Order 70, the culmination of the Cardwell and Childers reforms of the British Army, comes into effect.
  1. Cardwell Reforms
    
    The Cardwell Reforms were a series of reforms of the British Army undertaken by Secretary of State for War Edward Cardwell between 1868 and 1874 with the support of Liberal prime minister William Ewart Gladstone. Gladstone paid little attention to military affairs but he was keen on efficiency. In 1870, he pushed through Parliament major changes in Army organisation. Germany's stunning triumph over France in the Franco-Prussian War proved that the Prussian system of professional soldiers with up-to-date weapons was far superior to the traditional system of gentlemen-soldiers that Britain used.
  2. Childers Reforms
    
    The Childers Reforms of 1881 reorganised the infantry regiments of the British Army. The reforms were done by Secretary of State for War Hugh Childers during 1881, and were a continuation of the earlier Cardwell Reforms.
  3. British Army
    
    The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. As of 2022, the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurkhas, and 28,330 volunteer reserve personnel.
1879
1. Charles Taze Russell publishes the first edition of the religious magazine The Watchtower.
  1. Charles Taze Russell
    
    Charles Taze Russell, or Pastor Russell, was an American Christian restorationist minister from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and founder of what is now known as the Bible Student movement. He was an early Christian Zionist.
  2. The Watchtower
    
    The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom is an illustrated religious magazine, published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses distribute The Watchtower—Public Edition, along with its companion magazine, Awake!.
1878
1. Canada joins the Universal Postal Union.
  1. Universal Postal Union
    
    The Universal Postal Union, established by the Treaty of Bern of 1874, is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that coordinates postal policies among member nations, in addition to the worldwide postal system. The UPU contains four bodies consisting of the Congress, the Council of Administration (CA), the Postal Operations Council (POC) and the International Bureau (IB). It also oversees the Telematics and Express Mail Service (EMS) cooperatives. Each member agrees to the same terms for conducting international postal duties. The UPU's headquarters are located in Bern, Switzerland.
1874
1. The Remington No. 1, the first commercially successful typewriter, went on sale.
  1. Sholes and Glidden typewriter
    
    The Sholes and Glidden typewriter was the first commercially successful typewriter. Principally designed by the American inventor Christopher Latham Sholes, it was developed with the assistance of fellow printer Samuel W. Soule and amateur mechanic Carlos S. Glidden. Work began in 1867, but Soule left the enterprise shortly thereafter, replaced by James Densmore, who provided financial backing and the driving force behind the machine's continued development. After several short-lived attempts to manufacture the device, the machine was acquired by E. Remington and Sons in early 1873. An arms manufacturer seeking to diversify, Remington further refined the typewriter before finally placing it on the market on July 1, 1874.
  2. Typewriter
    
    A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of keys, and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a type element. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a person who used such a device.
2. The Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the first commercially successful typewriter, goes on sale.
  1. Sholes and Glidden typewriter
    
    The Sholes and Glidden typewriter was the first commercially successful typewriter. Principally designed by the American inventor Christopher Latham Sholes, it was developed with the assistance of fellow printer Samuel W. Soule and amateur mechanic Carlos S. Glidden. Work began in 1867, but Soule left the enterprise shortly thereafter, replaced by James Densmore, who provided financial backing and the driving force behind the machine's continued development. After several short-lived attempts to manufacture the device, the machine was acquired by E. Remington and Sons in early 1873. An arms manufacturer seeking to diversify, Remington further refined the typewriter before finally placing it on the market on July 1, 1874.
  2. Typewriter
    
    A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of keys, and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a type element. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a person who used such a device.
1873
1. Prince Edward Island joins into Canadian Confederation.
  1. Prince Edward Island
    
    Prince Edward Island is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is the smallest province in terms of land area and population, but the most densely populated. The island has several nicknames: "Garden of the Gulf", "Birthplace of Confederation" and "Cradle of Confederation". Its capital and largest city is Charlottetown. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces.
  2. Canadian Confederation
    
    Canadian Confederation was the process by which three British North American provinces, the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, were united into one federation called the Dominion of Canada, on July 1, 1867. Upon Confederation, Canada consisted of four provinces: Ontario and Quebec, which had been split out from the Province of Canada, and the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current number of ten provinces and three territories.
1870
1. The United States Department of Justice formally comes into existence.
  1. United States Department of Justice
    
    The United States Department of Justice (DOJ), also known as the Justice Department, is a federal executive department of the United States government tasked with the enforcement of federal law and administration of justice in the United States. It is equivalent to the justice or interior ministries of other countries. The department is headed by the U.S. attorney general, who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the president's Cabinet. The current attorney general is Merrick Garland, who was sworn in on March 11, 2021.
1867
1. The British North America Act takes effect as the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia join into confederation to create the modern nation of Canada. John A. Macdonald is sworn in as the first Prime Minister of Canada. This date is commemorated annually in Canada as Canada Day, a national holiday.
  1. Constitution Act, 1867
    
    The Constitution Act, 1867, originally enacted as the British North America Act, 1867, is a major part of the Constitution of Canada. The Act created a federal dominion and defines much of the operation of the Government of Canada, including its federal structure, the House of Commons, the Senate, the justice system, and the taxation system. In 1982, with the patriation of the Constitution, the British North America Acts which were originally enacted by the British Parliament, including this Act, were renamed. Although, the Acts are still known by their original names in records of the United Kingdom. Amendments were also made at this time: section 92A was added, giving provinces greater control over non-renewable natural resources.
  2. Province of Canada
    
    The Province of Canada was a British colony in North America from 1841 to 1867. Its formation reflected recommendations made by John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, in the Report on the Affairs of British North America following the Rebellions of 1837–1838.
  3. New Brunswick
    
    New Brunswick is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and French as its official languages.
  4. Nova Scotia
    
    Nova Scotia is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. Nova Scotia is Latin for "New Scotland".
  5. Canadian Confederation
    
    Canadian Confederation was the process by which three British North American provinces, the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, were united into one federation called the Dominion of Canada, on July 1, 1867. Upon Confederation, Canada consisted of four provinces: Ontario and Quebec, which had been split out from the Province of Canada, and the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current number of ten provinces and three territories.
  6. John A. Macdonald
    
    Sir John Alexander Macdonald was the first prime minister of Canada, serving from 1867 to 1873 and from 1878 to 1891. The dominant figure of Canadian Confederation, he had a political career that spanned almost half a century.
  7. Prime Minister of Canada
    
    The prime minister of Canada is the head of government of Canada. Under the Westminster system, the prime minister governs with the confidence of a majority the elected House of Commons; as such, the prime minister typically sits as a member of Parliament (MP) and leads the largest party or a coalition of parties. As first minister, the prime minister selects ministers to form the Cabinet, and serves as its chair. Constitutionally, the Crown exercises executive power on the advice of the Cabinet, which is collectively responsible to the House of Commons.
  8. Canada Day
    
    Canada Day, formerly known as Dominion Day, is the national day of Canada. A federal statutory holiday, it celebrates the anniversary of Canadian Confederation which occurred on July 1, 1867, with the passing of the British North America Act, 1867 where the three separate colonies of the United Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into a single Dominion within the British Empire called Canada. Originally called Dominion Day, the holiday was renamed in 1982, the same year that the Canadian Constitution was patriated by the Canada Act 1982. Canada Day celebrations take place throughout the country, as well as in various locations around the world attended by Canadians living abroad.
1863
1. Keti Koti (Emancipation Day) in Suriname, marking the abolition of slavery by the Netherlands.
  1. Ketikoti
    
    Ketikoti, sometimes spelled as Keti Koti, or officially Dag der Vrijheden is an annual celebration on 1 July that marks Emancipation Day in Suriname. The day is also known as Manspasi Dei or Prisiri Manspasi, meaning "Emancipation" or "Emancipation Festival". or Kettingsnijden.
  2. Suriname
    
    Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname, is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, and Brazil to the south. At just under 165,000 square kilometers, it is the smallest sovereign state in South America.
  3. Slavery
    
    Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave, who is someone forbidden to quit their service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as their property. Slavery typically involves the enslaved person being made to perform some form of work while also having their location or residence dictated by the enslaver. Many historical cases of enslavement occurred when the enslaved broke the law, became indebted, or suffered a military defeat; other forms of slavery were instituted along demographic lines such as race. The duration of a person's enslavement might be for life, or for a fixed period of time, after which freedom would be granted. Although most forms of slavery are explicitly involuntary and involve the coercion of the enslaved, there also exists voluntary slavery, entered into by the enslaved to pay a debt or obtain money because of poverty. In the course of human history, slavery was a typical feature of civilization, legal in most societies, but it is now outlawed in most countries of the world, except as a punishment for a crime.
2. American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins.
  1. Battle of Gettysburg
    
    The Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. In the battle, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war's turning point due to the Union's decisive victory and concurrence with the Siege of Vicksburg.
1862
1. American Civil War: Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched a series of disjointed and ultimate unsuccessful assaults on the nearly impregnable Union position on Malvern Hill in Henrico County, Virginia.
  1. American Civil War
    
    The American Civil War was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union and the Confederacy, the latter formed by states that had seceded. The central cause of the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prevented from doing so, which was widely believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.
  2. Robert E. Lee
    
    Robert Edward Lee was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, towards the end of which he was appointed the overall commander of the Confederate States Army. He led the Army of Northern Virginia—the Confederacy's most powerful army—from 1862 until its surrender in 1865, earning a reputation as a skilled tactician.
  3. Battle of Malvern Hill
    
    The Battle of Malvern Hill, also known as the Battle of Poindexter's Farm, was fought on July 1, 1862, between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, led by Gen. Robert E. Lee, and the Union Army of the Potomac under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan. It was the final battle of the Seven Days Battles during the American Civil War, taking place on a 130-foot (40 m) elevation of land known as Malvern Hill, near the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia and just one mile (1.6 km) from the James River. Including inactive reserves, more than fifty thousand soldiers from each side took part, using more than two hundred pieces of artillery and three warships.
  4. Henrico County, Virginia
    
    Henrico County, officially the County of Henrico, is located in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. As of the 2020 census, the population was 334,389 making it the fifth-most populous county in Virginia. Henrico County is included in the Greater Richmond Region. There is no incorporated community within Henrico County; therefore, there is no incorporated county seat either. Laurel, an unincorporated CDP, serves this function.
2. The Russian State Library is founded as the Library of the Moscow Public Museum.
  1. Russian State Library
    
    The Russian State Library is one of the three national libraries of Russia, located in Moscow. It is the largest library in the country and one of the largest in the world. Its holdings crossed over 47 million units in 2017. It is a federal library overseen by the Ministry of Culture, including being under its fiscal jurisdiction.
3. Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, second daughter of Queen Victoria, marries Prince Louis of Hesse, the future Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse.
  1. Princess Alice of the United Kingdom
    
    Princess Alice was Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine from 13 June 1877 until her death in 1878 as the wife of Grand Duke Louis IV. She was the third child and second daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Alice was the first of Queen Victoria's nine children to die, and one of three to predecease their mother, who died in 1901. Her life had been enwrapped in tragedy since her father's death in 1861.
  2. Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse
    
    Louis IV was the Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine from 13 June 1877 until his death in 1892. Through his marriage to Queen Victoria's second daughter Alice, he was connected to the British royal family. Two of his daughters married into the House of Romanov.
4. American Civil War: The Battle of Malvern Hill takes place. It is the last of the Seven Days Battles, part of George B. McClellan's Peninsula Campaign.
  1. American Civil War
    
    The American Civil War was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union and the Confederacy, the latter formed by states that had seceded. The central cause of the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prevented from doing so, which was widely believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.
  2. Battle of Malvern Hill
    
    The Battle of Malvern Hill, also known as the Battle of Poindexter's Farm, was fought on July 1, 1862, between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, led by Gen. Robert E. Lee, and the Union Army of the Potomac under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan. It was the final battle of the Seven Days Battles during the American Civil War, taking place on a 130-foot (40 m) elevation of land known as Malvern Hill, near the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia and just one mile (1.6 km) from the James River. Including inactive reserves, more than fifty thousand soldiers from each side took part, using more than two hundred pieces of artillery and three warships.
  3. Seven Days Battles
    
    The Seven Days Battles were a series of seven battles over seven days from June 25 to July 1, 1862, near Richmond, Virginia, during the American Civil War. Confederate General Robert E. Lee drove the invading Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, away from Richmond and into a retreat down the Virginia Peninsula. The series of battles is sometimes known erroneously as the Seven Days Campaign, but it was actually the culmination of the Peninsula Campaign, not a separate campaign in its own right.
  4. George B. McClellan
    
    George Brinton McClellan was an American soldier, Civil War Union general, civil engineer, railroad executive, and politician who served as the 24th governor of New Jersey. A graduate of West Point, McClellan served with distinction during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), and later left the Army to serve as an executive and engineer on railroads until the outbreak of the American Civil War (1861–1865). Early in the conflict, McClellan was appointed to the rank of major general and played an important role in raising a well-trained and disciplined army, which would become the Army of the Potomac in the Eastern Theater; he served a brief period as Commanding General of the United States Army of the Union Army.
  5. Peninsula campaign
    
    The Peninsula campaign of the American Civil War was a major Union operation launched in southeastern Virginia from March to July 1862, the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. The operation, commanded by Major General George B. McClellan, was an amphibious turning movement against the Confederate States Army in Northern Virginia, intended to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. McClellan was initially successful against the equally cautious General Joseph E. Johnston, but the emergence of the more aggressive General Robert E. Lee turned the subsequent Seven Days Battles into a humiliating Union defeat.
1858
1. Joint reading of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace's papers on evolution to the Linnean Society of London.
  1. Charles Darwin
    
    Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for contributing to the understanding of evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental concept in science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.
  2. Alfred Russel Wallace
    
    Alfred Russel Wallace was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection. His 1858 paper on the subject was published that year alongside extracts from Charles Darwin's earlier writings on the topic. It spurred Darwin to set aside the "big species book" he was drafting, and quickly write an abstract of it, published in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.
  3. Evolution
    
    Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation tends to exist within any given population as a result of genetic mutation and recombination. Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or more rare within a population. The evolutionary pressures that determine whether a characteristic is common or rare within a population constantly change, resulting in a change in heritable characteristics arising over successive generations. It is this process of evolution that has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms, and molecules.
  4. Linnean Society of London
    
    The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections, and publishes academic journals and books on plant and animal biology. The society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes.
1855
1. Signing of the Quinault Treaty: The Quinault and the Quileute cede their land to the United States.
  1. Quinault Treaty
    
    The Quinault Treaty was a treaty agreement between the United States and the Native American Quinault and Quileute tribes located in the western Olympic Peninsula north of Grays Harbor, in the recently formed Washington Territory. The treaty was signed on 1 July 1855, at the Quinault River, and on 25 January 1856 at Olympia, the territorial capital. It was ratified by Congress on 8 March 1859, and proclaimed law on April 11, 1859.
  2. Quinault people
    
    The Quinault are a group of Native American peoples from western Washington in the United States. They are a Southwestern Coast Salish people and are enrolled in the federally recognized Quinault Tribe of the Quinault Reservation.
  3. Quileute
    
    The Quileute, are a Native American people in western Washington state in the United States, currently numbering approximately 2,000. They are a federally recognized tribe: the Quileute Tribe of the Quileute Reservation.
1837
1. A system of civil registration of births, marriages and deaths is established in England and Wales.
  1. Civil registration
    
    Civil registration is the system by which a government records the vital events of its citizens and residents. The resulting repository or database has different names in different countries and even in different US states. It can be called a civil registry, civil register, vital records, and other terms, and the office responsible for receiving the registrations can be called a bureau of vital statistics, registry of vital records and statistics, registrar, registry, register, registry office, or population registry. The primary purpose of civil registration is to create a legal document that can be used to establish and protect the rights of individuals. A secondary purpose is to create a data source for the compilation of vital statistics.
1823
1. The five Central American nations of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica declare independence from the First Mexican Empire after being annexed the year prior.
  1. First Mexican Empire
    
    The Mexican Empire was a constitutional monarchy, the first independent government of Mexico and the only former colony of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy after independence. It is one of the few modern-era, independent monarchies that have existed in the Americas, along with the Brazilian Empire. It is typically denominated as the First Mexican Empire to distinguish it from the Second Mexican Empire.
  2. Central America under Mexican rule
    
    From January 1822 to July 1823, the five Central American nations of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua were controlled by the First Mexican Empire, and briefly, the Supreme Executive Power. Collectively known as the Captaincy General of Guatemala, each nation was one of the five southernmost provinces of the Mexican Empire. The incorporation of Central America brought Mexico to the height of its territorial extent.
1819
1. Johann Georg Tralles discovers the Great Comet of 1819, (C/1819 N1). It is the first comet analyzed using polarimetry, by François Arago.
  1. Johann Georg Tralles
    
    Johann Georg Tralles was a German mathematician and physicist.
  2. Great Comet of 1819
    
    The Great Comet of 1819, officially designated as C/1819 N1, also known as Comet Tralles, was an exceptionally bright and easily visible comet, approaching an apparent magnitude of 1–2, discovered July 1, 1819 by the German astronomer Johann Georg Tralles in Berlin. It was the first comet analyzed using polarimetry, by French mathematician François Arago.
  3. Polarimetry
    
    Polarimetry is the measurement and interpretation of the polarization of transverse waves, most notably electromagnetic waves, such as radio or light waves. Typically polarimetry is done on electromagnetic waves that have traveled through or have been reflected, refracted or diffracted by some material in order to characterize that object.
  4. François Arago
    
    Dominique François Jean Arago, known simply as François Arago, was a French mathematician, physicist, astronomer, freemason, supporter of the Carbonari revolutionaries and politician.
1782
1. American Revolutionary War: Five American privateer vessels raided the British settlement at Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.
  1. American Revolutionary War
    
    The American Revolutionary War, also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, secured American independence from Great Britain. Fighting began on April 19, 1775, followed by the Lee Resolution on July 2, 1776, and the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The American Patriots were supported by the Kingdom of France and, to a lesser extent, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Empire, in a conflict taking place in North America, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic Ocean.
  2. Privateer
    
    A privateer is a private person or ship that engages in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Since robbery under arms was a common aspect of seaborne trade, until the early 19th century all merchant ships carried arms. A sovereign or delegated authority issued commissions, also referred to as a letter of marque, during wartime. The commission empowered the holder to carry on all forms of hostility permissible at sea by the usages of war. This included attacking foreign vessels and taking them as prizes, and taking prize crews as prisoners for exchange. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, with the proceeds divided by percentage between the privateer's sponsors, shipowners, captains and crew. A percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission.
  3. Raid on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1782)
    
    The Raid on Lunenburg occurred during the American Revolution when the US privateer, Captain Noah Stoddard of Fairhaven, Massachusetts, and four other privateer vessels attacked the British settlement at Lunenburg, Nova Scotia on July 1, 1782. The raid was the last major privateer attack on a Nova Scotia community during the war.
  4. Lunenburg, Nova Scotia
    
    Lunenburg is a port town on the South Shore of Nova Scotia, Canada. Founded in 1753, the town was one of the first British attempts to settle Protestants in Nova Scotia.
2. Raid on Lunenburg: American privateers attack the British settlement of Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.
  1. Raid on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1782)
    
    The Raid on Lunenburg occurred during the American Revolution when the US privateer, Captain Noah Stoddard of Fairhaven, Massachusetts, and four other privateer vessels attacked the British settlement at Lunenburg, Nova Scotia on July 1, 1782. The raid was the last major privateer attack on a Nova Scotia community during the war.
  2. Privateer
    
    A privateer is a private person or ship that engages in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Since robbery under arms was a common aspect of seaborne trade, until the early 19th century all merchant ships carried arms. A sovereign or delegated authority issued commissions, also referred to as a letter of marque, during wartime. The commission empowered the holder to carry on all forms of hostility permissible at sea by the usages of war. This included attacking foreign vessels and taking them as prizes, and taking prize crews as prisoners for exchange. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, with the proceeds divided by percentage between the privateer's sponsors, shipowners, captains and crew. A percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission.
  3. Lunenburg, Nova Scotia
    
    Lunenburg is a port town on the South Shore of Nova Scotia, Canada. Founded in 1753, the town was one of the first British attempts to settle Protestants in Nova Scotia.
1770
1. Lexell's Comet approached Earth at a distance of 0.015 AU (2.2 million km; 1.4 million mi), closer to the Earth than any other comet in recorded history.
  1. Lexell's Comet
    
    D/1770 L1, popularly known as Lexell's Comet after its orbit computer Anders Johan Lexell, was a comet discovered by astronomer Charles Messier in June 1770. It is notable for having passed closer to Earth than any other comet in recorded history, approaching to a distance of only 0.015 astronomical units. The comet has not been seen since 1770 and is considered a lost comet.
  2. Astronomical unit
    
    The astronomical unit is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun and approximately equal to 150 million kilometres or 8.3 light-minutes. The actual distance from Earth to the Sun varies by about 3% as Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum (aphelion) to a minimum (perihelion) and back again once each year. The astronomical unit was originally conceived as the average of Earth's aphelion and perihelion; however, since 2012 it has been defined as exactly 149597870700 m.
  3. Comet
    
    A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit. If sufficiently bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30° across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures and religions.
2. Lexell's Comet is seen closer to the Earth than any other comet in recorded history, approaching to a distance of 0.0146 astronomical units (2,180,000 km; 1,360,000 mi).
  1. Lexell's Comet
    
    D/1770 L1, popularly known as Lexell's Comet after its orbit computer Anders Johan Lexell, was a comet discovered by astronomer Charles Messier in June 1770. It is notable for having passed closer to Earth than any other comet in recorded history, approaching to a distance of only 0.015 astronomical units. The comet has not been seen since 1770 and is considered a lost comet.
  2. Astronomical unit
    
    The astronomical unit is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun and approximately equal to 150 million kilometres or 8.3 light-minutes. The actual distance from Earth to the Sun varies by about 3% as Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum (aphelion) to a minimum (perihelion) and back again once each year. The astronomical unit was originally conceived as the average of Earth's aphelion and perihelion; however, since 2012 it has been defined as exactly 149597870700 m.
1766
1. François-Jean de la Barre, a young French nobleman, is tortured and beheaded before his body is burnt on a pyre along with a copy of Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique nailed to his torso for the crime of not saluting a Roman Catholic religious procession in Abbeville, France.
  1. François-Jean de la Barre
    
    François-Jean Lefebvre de la Barre was a young French nobleman. He was tortured and beheaded before his body was burnt on a pyre along with Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary nailed to his torso. La Barre is often said to have been executed for not saluting a Catholic religious procession, though other charges of a similar nature were laid against him.
  2. Pyre
    
    A pyre, also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite or execution. As a form of cremation, a body is placed upon or under the pyre, which is then set on fire.
  3. Voltaire
    
    François-Marie Arouet was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his nom de plume M. de Voltaire, he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—especially the Roman Catholic Church—and of slavery. Voltaire was an advocate of freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and separation of church and state.
  4. Dictionnaire philosophique
    
    The Dictionnaire philosophique is an encyclopedic dictionary published by the Enlightenment thinker Voltaire in 1764. The alphabetically arranged articles often criticize the Roman Catholic Church, Judaism, Islam, and other institutions. The first edition, released in June 1764, went by the name of Dictionnaire philosophique portatif. It was 344 pages and consisted of 73 articles. Later versions were expanded into two volumes consisting of 120 articles. The first editions were published anonymously in Geneva by Gabriel Grasset. Due to the volatile content of the Dictionnaire, Voltaire chose Grasset over his usual publisher to ensure his own anonymity. There were many editions and reprints of the Dictionnaire during Voltaire's lifetime, but only four of them contained additions and modifications. Furthermore, another work published in 1770, Questions sur l'Encyclopédie, which contained reshaped and modified articles from the Encyclopédie always in alphabetical order, led many following editors to join this and the Dictionnaire in a unique opus. The Dictionnaire was a lifelong project for Voltaire. It represents the culmination of his views on Christianity, God, morality and other subjects.
  5. Catholic Church
    
    The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2019. As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies located around the world. The pope, who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The bishopric of Rome, known as the Holy See, is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia, has its principal offices in Vatican City, a small enclave of the Italian city of Rome, of which the pope is head of state.
  6. Abbeville
    
    Abbeville is a commune in the Somme department and in Hauts-de-France region in northern France.
1690
1. Williamite forces defeated the Jacobites at the Battle of the Boyne near Drogheda, marking a turning point in the Williamite War in Ireland.
  1. Williamite
    
    A Williamite was a follower of King William III of England who deposed King James II and VII in the Glorious Revolution. William, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, replaced James with the support of English Whigs.
  2. Jacobitism
    
    Jacobitism was a political movement that supported the restoration of the senior line of the House of Stuart to the British throne. The name derives from the first name of James II and VII, which in Latin translates as Jacobus. When James went into exile after the November 1688 Glorious Revolution, the Parliament of England argued that he had abandoned the English throne, which they offered to his Protestant daughter Mary II, and her husband William III. In April, the Scottish Convention held that he "forfeited" the throne of Scotland by his actions, listed in the Articles of Grievances.
  3. Battle of the Boyne
    
    The Battle of the Boyne was a battle in 1690 between the forces of the deposed King James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland, and those of King William III who, with his wife Queen Mary II, had acceded to the Crowns of England and Scotland in 1689. The battle took place across the River Boyne close to the town of Drogheda in the Kingdom of Ireland, modern-day Republic of Ireland, and resulted in a victory for William. This turned the tide in James's failed attempt to regain the British crown and ultimately aided in ensuring the continued Protestant ascendancy in Ireland.
  4. Drogheda
    
    Drogheda is an industrial and port town in County Louth on the east coast of Ireland, 56 km (35 mi) north of Dublin. It is located on the Dublin–Belfast corridor on the east coast of Ireland, mostly in County Louth but with the south fringes of the town in County Meath, 49 km (30 mi) north of Dublin. Drogheda has a population of approximately 41,000 inhabitants (2016), making it the eleventh largest settlement by population in all of Ireland, and the largest town in the country by both population and area. It is the last bridging point on the River Boyne before it enters the Irish Sea. The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Newgrange is located 8 km (5.0 mi) west of the town.
  5. Williamite War in Ireland
    
    The Williamite War in Ireland, was a conflict between Jacobite supporters of deposed monarch James II and Williamite supporters of his successor, William III. It is also called the Jacobite War in Ireland, Williamite Conquest of Ireland, or the Williamite–Jacobite War in Ireland.
2. War of the Grand Alliance: Marshal de Luxembourg triumphs over an Anglo-Dutch army at the battle of Fleurus.
  1. Nine Years' War
    
    The Nine Years' War (1688–1697), often called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg, was a conflict between France and a European coalition which mainly included the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Savoy, Sweden and Portugal. Although not the first European war to spill over to Europe's overseas colonies, the events of the war spread to such far away places as the Americas, India, and West Africa. It is for this reason that it is sometimes considered the first world war. The conflict encompassed the Glorious Revolution in England, where William of Orange deposed the unpopular James VII and II and subsequently struggled against him for control of Scotland and Ireland, and a campaign in colonial North America between French and English settlers and their respective Native American allies.
  2. François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg
    
    François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, Duke of Piney-Luxembourg, commonly known as Luxembourg, and nicknamed "The Upholsterer of Notre-Dame", was a French general and Marshal of France. A comrade and successor of the Great Condé, he was one of the most accomplished military commanders of the early modern period and is particularly noted for his exploits in the Franco-Dutch War and War of the Grand Alliance. Not imposing physically, as he was a slight man and hunchbacked, Luxembourg was nonetheless one of France's greatest generals. He never lost a battle in which he held command.
  3. Battle of Fleurus (1690)
    
    The Battle of Fleurus, fought on 1 July 1690, was a major engagement of the Nine Years' War. In a bold and masterful envelopment, Marshal Luxembourg, commanding a French army of some 35,000 men, inflicted a severe defeat on Prince Waldeck’s Allied force of approximately 38,000 men. Waldeck lost 50% of his army and Luxembourg moved ahead to control Flanders.
3. Glorious Revolution: Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (as reckoned under the Julian calendar).
  1. Glorious Revolution
    
    The Glorious Revolution, also known as the Glorieuze Overtocht or Glorious Crossing in the Netherlands, is the sequence of events leading to the deposition of King James II and VII of England and Scotland in November 1688, and his replacement by his daughter Mary II and her husband and James's nephew William III of Orange, de facto ruler of the Dutch Republic. A term first used by John Hampden in late 1689, it has been notable in the years since for having been described as the last successful invasion of England as well as an internal coup, with differing interpretations from the Dutch and English perspectives respectively.
  2. Battle of the Boyne
    
    The Battle of the Boyne was a battle in 1690 between the forces of the deposed King James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland, and those of King William III who, with his wife Queen Mary II, had acceded to the Crowns of England and Scotland in 1689. The battle took place across the River Boyne close to the town of Drogheda in the Kingdom of Ireland, modern-day Republic of Ireland, and resulted in a victory for William. This turned the tide in James's failed attempt to regain the British crown and ultimately aided in ensuring the continued Protestant ascendancy in Ireland.
  3. Julian calendar
    
    The Julian calendar, proposed by Roman consul Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict. It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and astronomers such as Sosigenes of Alexandria.
1643
1. The Westminster Assembly of Divines, assembled to restructure the Church of England, first convened in Westminster Abbey, London.
  1. Westminster Assembly
    
    The Westminster Assembly of Divines was a council of divines (theologians) and members of the English Parliament appointed from 1643 to 1653 to restructure the Church of England. Several Scots also attended, and the Assembly's work was adopted by the Church of Scotland. As many as 121 ministers were called to the Assembly, with nineteen others added later to replace those who did not attend or could no longer attend. It produced a new Form of Church Government, a Confession of Faith or statement of belief, two catechisms or manuals for religious instruction, and a liturgical manual, the Directory for Public Worship, for the Churches of England and Scotland. The Confession and catechisms were adopted as doctrinal standards in the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian churches, where they remain normative. Amended versions of the Confession were also adopted in Congregational and Baptist churches in England and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Confession became influential throughout the English-speaking world, but especially in American Protestant theology.
  2. Church of England
    
    The Church of England is the established Christian church in England and the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the 3rd century and to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.
  3. Westminster Abbey
    
    Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is a large, mainly Gothic abbey church in the City of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is one of the United Kingdom's most notable religious buildings and a burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. Since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066, all coronations of English and British monarchs have occurred in Westminster Abbey. Sixteen royal weddings have occurred at the abbey since 1100.
2. First meeting of the Westminster Assembly, a council of theologians ("divines") and members of the Parliament of England appointed to restructure the Church of England, at Westminster Abbey in London.
  1. Westminster Assembly
    
    The Westminster Assembly of Divines was a council of divines (theologians) and members of the English Parliament appointed from 1643 to 1653 to restructure the Church of England. Several Scots also attended, and the Assembly's work was adopted by the Church of Scotland. As many as 121 ministers were called to the Assembly, with nineteen others added later to replace those who did not attend or could no longer attend. It produced a new Form of Church Government, a Confession of Faith or statement of belief, two catechisms or manuals for religious instruction, and a liturgical manual, the Directory for Public Worship, for the Churches of England and Scotland. The Confession and catechisms were adopted as doctrinal standards in the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian churches, where they remain normative. Amended versions of the Confession were also adopted in Congregational and Baptist churches in England and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Confession became influential throughout the English-speaking world, but especially in American Protestant theology.
  2. Parliament of England
    
    The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from the 13th century until 1707 when it was replaced by the Parliament of Great Britain. Parliament evolved from the great council of bishops and peers that advised the English monarch. Great councils were first called Parliaments during the reign of Henry III. By this time, the king required Parliament's consent to levy taxation.
  3. Church of England
    
    The Church of England is the established Christian church in England and the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the 3rd century and to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.
  4. Westminster Abbey
    
    Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is a large, mainly Gothic abbey church in the City of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is one of the United Kingdom's most notable religious buildings and a burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. Since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066, all coronations of English and British monarchs have occurred in Westminster Abbey. Sixteen royal weddings have occurred at the abbey since 1100.
1569
1. Union of Lublin: The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania confirm a real union; the united country is called the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth or the Republic of Both Nations.
  1. Union of Lublin
    
    The Union of Lublin was signed on 1 July 1569 in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest countries in Europe at the time. It replaced the personal union of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was largely abandoned. The Duchy of Livonia, tied to Lithuania in real union since the Union of Grodno (1566), became a Polish–Lithuanian condominium.
  2. Grand Duchy of Lithuania
    
    The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that existed from the 13th century to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Empire of Austria. The state was founded by Lithuanians, who were at the time a polytheistic nation born from several united Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija.
  3. Real union
    
    Real union is a union of two or more states, which share some state institutions in contrast to personal unions; however, they are not as unified as states in a political union. It is a development from personal union and has historically been limited to monarchies.
  4. Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
    
    The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch in real union, who was both King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. It was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its largest territorial extent, in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth covered almost 1,000,000 km2 (400,000 sq mi) and as of 1618 sustained a multi-ethnic population of almost 12 million. Polish and Latin were the two co-official languages.
1523
1. Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos become the first Lutheran martyrs, burned at the stake by Roman Catholic authorities in Brussels.
  1. Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos
    
    Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos or Voes, were the first two Lutherans executed by the Council of Brabant for their adherence to Reformation doctrine. They were burned at the stake in Brussels on 1 July 1523.
  2. Lutheranism
    
    Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation. The reaction of the government and church authorities to the international spread of his writings, beginning with the Ninety-five Theses, divided Western Christianity. During the Reformation, Lutheranism became the state religion of numerous states of northern Europe, especially in northern Germany, Scandinavia and the then Livonian Order. Lutheran clergy became civil servants and the Lutheran churches became part of the state.
  3. Catholic Church
    
    The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2019. As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies located around the world. The pope, who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The bishopric of Rome, known as the Holy See, is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia, has its principal offices in Vatican City, a small enclave of the Italian city of Rome, of which the pope is head of state.
  4. Brussels
    
    Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is located in the central portion of the country and is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the Flemish Region and the Walloon Region. Brussels is the most densely populated region in Belgium, and although it has the highest GDP per capita, it has the lowest available income per household. It covers 162 km2 (63 sq mi), a relatively small area compared to the two other regions, and has a population of over 1.2 million. The five times larger metropolitan area of Brussels comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it the largest in Belgium. It is also part of a large conurbation extending towards Ghent, Antwerp, Leuven and Walloon Brabant, home to over 5 million people.
1520
1. Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés fight their way out of Tenochtitlan after nightfall.
  1. Conquistador
    
    Conquistadors or conquistadores were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa, and Asia, colonizing and opening trade routes. They brought much of the Americas under the dominion of Spain and Portugal.
  2. Hernán Cortés
    
    Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
  3. La Noche Triste
    
    La Noche Triste was an important event during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, wherein Hernán Cortés, his army of Spanish conquistadors, and their native allies were driven out of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.
  4. Tenochtitlan
    
    Tenochtitlan, also known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was a large Mexica altepetl in what is now the historic center of Mexico City. The exact date of the founding of the city is unclear. The date 13 March 1325 was chosen in 1925 to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the city. The city was built on an island in what was then Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. The city was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521.
1431
1. The Battle of La Higueruela takes place in Granada, leading to a modest advance of the Kingdom of Castile during the Reconquista.
  1. Battle of La Higueruela
    
    The Battle of La Higueruela was fought in the vega of the river Genil near Granada on 1 July 1431 between the forces of John II of Castile, led by Álvaro de Luna, and troops loyal to Muhammed IX, Nasrid Sultan of Granada. The battle was a modest victory for the forces of Castile, with no territorial gain and failing to take Granada. Following this battle, John II of Castile installed Yusuf IV, grandson of Muhammed VI, as Sultan of Granada.
  2. Granada
    
    Granada is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of four rivers, the Darro, the Genil, the Monachil and the Beiro. Ascribed to the Vega de Granada comarca, the city sits at an average elevation of 738 m (2,421 ft) above sea level, yet is only one hour by car from the Mediterranean coast, the Costa Tropical. Nearby is the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, where the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 were held.
  3. Kingdom of Castile
    
    The Kingdom of Castile was a large and powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region. It began in the 9th century as the County of Castile, an eastern frontier lordship of the Kingdom of León. During the 10th century, its counts increased their autonomy, but it was not until 1065 that it was separated from León and became a kingdom in its own right. Between 1072 and 1157, it was again united with León, and after 1230, this union became permanent. Throughout this period, the Castilian kings made extensive conquests in southern Iberia at the expense of the Islamic principalities. The Kingdoms of Castile and of León, with their southern acquisitions, came to be known collectively as the Crown of Castile, a term that also came to encompass overseas expansion.
  4. Reconquista
    
    The Reconquista is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492, in which the Christian kingdoms expanded through war and conquered al-Andalus; the territories of Iberia ruled by Muslims. The concept of a Reconquista emerged in Western and especially in Spanish historiography in the 19th century, and was a fundamental component of Spanish nationalism.
1097
1. Battle of Dorylaeum: Crusaders led by prince Bohemond of Taranto defeat a Seljuk army led by sultan Kilij Arslan I.
  1. Battle of Dorylaeum (1097)
    
    The Battle of Dorylaeum took place during the First Crusade on 1 July 1097 between the crusader forces and the Seljuk Turks, near the city of Dorylaeum in Anatolia. Though the Turkish forces of Kilij Arslan nearly destroyed the Crusader contingent of Bohemond, other Crusaders arrived just in time to reverse the course of the battle.
  2. Crusades
    
    The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were intended to recover Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Islamic rule. Beginning with the First Crusade, which resulted in the recovery of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of Crusades were fought, providing a focal point of European history for centuries.
  3. Bohemond I of Antioch
    
    Bohemond I of Antioch, also known as Bohemond of Taranto, was the prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, leading a contingent of Normans on the quest eastward. Knowledgable about the Byzantine Empire through earlier campaigns with his father, he was the most experienced military leader of the crusade.
  4. Seljuk dynasty
    
    The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids, also known as Seljuk Turks, Seljuk Turkomans or the Saljuqids, was a Oghuz Turkic Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became Persianate and contributed to the Turco-Persian tradition in the medieval Middle East and Central Asia. The Seljuks established the Seljuk Empire (1037-1194), the Sultanate of Kermân (1041-1186) and the Sultanate of Rum (1074-1308), which at their heights stretched from Iran to Anatolia, and were the prime targets of the First Crusade.
  5. Kilij Arslan I
    
    Kilij Arslan ibn Suleiman (‎1079–1107) was the Seljuq Sultan of Rum from 1092 until his death in 1107. He ruled the Sultanate during the time of the First Crusade and thus faced the attack. He also re-established the Sultanate of Rum after the death of Malik Shah I of the Seljuk Empire and defeated the Crusaders in three battles during the Crusade of 1101. Kilij Arslan was the first Muslim and Turkish commander to fight against the Crusaders, commanding his horse archers while a teenager.
552
1. Battle of Taginae: Byzantine forces under Narses defeat the Ostrogoths in Italy, and the Ostrogoth king, Totila, is mortally wounded.
  1. Battle of Taginae
    
    At the Battle of Taginae in June/July 552, the forces of the Byzantine Empire under Narses broke the power of the Ostrogoths in Italy, and paved the way for the temporary Byzantine reconquest of the Italian Peninsula.
  2. Byzantine Empire
    
    The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople. It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. The terms "Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" were coined after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire, and to themselves as Romans—a term which Greeks continued to use for themselves into Ottoman times. Although the Roman state continued and its traditions were maintained, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from its earlier incarnation because it was centered on Constantinople, oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture, and characterised by Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
  3. Narses
    
    Narses was, with Belisarius, one of the great generals in the service of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I during the Roman reconquest that took place during Justinian's reign. Narses was a Romanized Armenian. He spent most of his life as an important eunuch in the palace of the emperors in Constantinople.
  4. Ostrogoths
    
    The Ostrogoths were a Roman-era Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Gothic kingdoms within the Roman Empire, based upon the large Gothic populations who had settled in the Balkans in the 4th century, having crossed the Lower Danube. While the Visigoths had formed under the leadership of Alaric I, the new Ostrogothic political entity which came to rule Italy was formed in the Balkans under the influence of the Amal dynasty, the family of Theodoric the Great.
  5. Totila
    
    Totila, original name Baduila, was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. A skilled military and political leader, Totila reversed the tide of the Gothic War, recovering by 543 almost all the territories in Italy that the Eastern Roman Empire had captured from his Kingdom in 540.
69
1. Tiberius Julius Alexander orders his Roman legions in Alexandria to swear allegiance to Vespasian as Emperor.
  1. AD 69
    
    AD 69 (LXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Rufinus. The denomination AD 69 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
  2. Tiberius Julius Alexander
    
    Tiberius Julius Alexander was an equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire. Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Jewish religion, he rose to become the 2nd procurator of Judea under Claudius. While Prefect of Egypt (66–69), he employed his legions against the Alexandrian Jews in a brutal response to ethnic violence, and was instrumental in the Emperor Vespasian's rise to power. In 70, he participated in the Siege of Jerusalem as Titus' second-in-command. He became the most powerful Jew of his age, and is ranked as one of the most prominent Jews in military history.
  3. Roman legion
    
    The Roman legion was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of 5,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic and of 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period of the Roman Empire.
  4. Alexandria
    
    Alexandria is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in c. 331 BC by Alexander the Great, Alexandria grew rapidly and became a major centre of Hellenic civilisation, eventually replacing Memphis, in present-day Greater Cairo, as Egypt's capital. During the Hellenistic period, it was home to the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which ranked among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, as well as the storied Library of Alexandria. Today, the library is reincarnated in the disc-shaped, ultramodern Bibliotheca Alexandrina. Its 15th-century seafront Qaitbay Citadel is now a museum. Called the "Bride of the Mediterranean" by locals, Alexandria is a popular tourist destination and an important industrial centre due to its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez.
  5. Allegiance
    
    An allegiance is a duty of fidelity said to be owed, or freely committed, by the people, subjects or citizens to their state or sovereign.
  6. Vespasian
    
    Vespasian was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolidation of the empire generated political stability and a vast Roman building program.
  7. Roman emperor
    
    The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period. The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming "emperor" in English it reflects his taking of the title augustus. Another title often used was caesar, used for heirs-apparent, and imperator, originally a military honorific. Early emperors also used the title princeps civitatis. Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably princeps senatus, consul, and pontifex maximus.

Births & Deaths

2021
1. Louis Andriessen, Dutch composer (b. 1939) deaths
  1. Louis Andriessen
    
    Louis Joseph Andriessen was a Dutch composer, pianist and academic teacher. Considered the most influential Dutch composer of his generation, he was a central proponent of The Hague school of composition. Although his music was initially dominated by neoclassicism and serialism, his style gradually shifted to a synthesis of American minimalism, jazz and the manner of Stravinsky.
2019
1. Bogusław Schaeffer, Polish composer (b. 1929) deaths
  1. Bogusław Schaeffer
    
    Bogusław Julien Schaeffer was a Polish composer, musicologist, and graphic artist, a member of the avantgarde "Cracow Group" of Polish composers alongside Krzysztof Penderecki and others.
2016
1. Robin Hardy, English author and film director (b. 1929) deaths
  1. Robin Hardy (film director)
    
    Robin St. Clair Rimington Hardy was an English author and film director. His most famous directorial work is The Wicker Man, and his last project was a film adaptation of his novel Cowboys for Christ, which was retitled The Wicker Tree.
2015
1. Val Doonican, Irish singer and television host (b. 1927) deaths
  1. Val Doonican
    
    Michael Valentine Doonican was an Irish singer of traditional pop, easy listening, and novelty songs, who was noted for his warm and relaxed style. A crooner, he found popular success, especially in the United Kingdom where he had five successive Top 10 albums in the 1960s as well as several hits on the UK Singles Chart, including "Walk Tall", "Elusive Butterfly" and "If the Whole World Stopped Lovin.'" The Val Doonican Show, which featured his singing and a variety of guests, had a long and successful run on BBC Television from 1965 to 1986. Doonican won the Variety Club of Great Britain's BBC-TV Personality of the Year award three times.
2. Czesław Olech, Polish mathematician and academic (b. 1931) deaths
  1. Czesław Olech
    
    Czesław Olech was a Polish mathematician. He was a representative of the Kraków school of mathematics, especially the differential equations school of Tadeusz Ważewski.
3. Nicholas Winton, English lieutenant and humanitarian (b. 1909) deaths
  1. Nicholas Winton
    
    Sir Nicholas George Winton was a British humanitarian who helped to rescue children who were at risk of eradication by Nazi Germany. Born to German-Jewish parents who had emigrated to Britain at the beginning of the 20th century, Winton assisted in the rescue of 669 children, most of them Jewish, from Czechoslovakia on the eve of World War II. On a brief visit to Czechoslovakia, he helped compile a list of children needing rescue and, returning to Britain, he worked to fulfill the legal requirements of bringing the children to Britain and finding homes and sponsors for them. This operation was later known as the Czech Kindertransport.
2014
1. Jean Garon, Canadian economist, lawyer and politician (b. 1938) deaths
  1. Jean Garon
    
    Jean Garon was a politician, lawyer, academic and economist in Quebec, Canada.
2. Stephen Gaskin, American activist, co-founder of The Farm (b. 1935) deaths
  1. Stephen Gaskin
    
    Stephen Gaskin was an American counterculture Hippie icon best known for his presence in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco in the 1960s and for co-founding "The Farm", a spiritual commune in 1970. He was a Green Party presidential primary candidate in 2000 on a platform which included campaign finance reform, universal health care, and decriminalization of marijuana. He was the author of over a dozen books, political activist, a philanthropic organizer and a self-proclaimed professional Hippie.
  2. The Farm (Tennessee)
    
    The Farm is an intentional community in Lewis County, Tennessee, near the town of Summertown, Tennessee, based on principles of nonviolence and respect for the Earth. It was founded in 1971 by Stephen Gaskin and 300 spiritual seekers from Haight-Ashbury and San Francisco. The Farm was the setting for "the rebirth of midwifery in the United States" and the creation of "the modern home-birth movement." Its members have founded a number of nonprofit organizations, including Plenty International, a relief and development organization, and Swan Conservation Trust, who established the 1,358 acres (550 ha) Big Swan Headwaters Preserve. The Farm has approximately 200 members and residents.
3. Bob Jones, English lawyer and politician (b. 1955) deaths
  1. Bob Jones (police commissioner)
    
    Robert Moelwyn Jones, CBE was a British Labour politician who served as a member of Wolverhampton City Council from 1980 to 2013 and as the West Midlands Police and Crime Commissioner in England from 2013-14.
4. Anatoly Kornukov, Ukrainian-Russian general (b. 1942) deaths
  1. Anatoly Kornukov
    
    General Anatoly Mikhailovich Kornukov was a general in the Russian Air Force and the former fighter pilot in the Soviet Air Defence Forces. From 1998 until 2002, he served as the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Air Force.
5. Walter Dean Myers, American author and poet (b. 1937) deaths
  1. Walter Dean Myers
    
    Walter Dean Myers was an American writer of children's books best known for young adult literature. He was born in Martinsburg, West Virginia, but was raised in Harlem. A tough childhood led him to writing and his school teachers would encourage him in this habit as a way to express himself. He wrote more than one hundred books including picture books and nonfiction. He won the Coretta Scott King Award for African-American authors five times. His 1988 novel Fallen Angels is one of the books most frequently challenged in the U.S. because of its adult language and its realistic depiction of the Vietnam War.
2013
1. Sidney Bryan Berry, American general (b. 1926) deaths
  1. Sidney Bryan Berry
    
    Sidney Bryan Berry was a United States Army Lieutenant General, Superintendent of West Point (1974–1977), and Commissioner of Public Safety for the state of Mississippi (1980–1984).
2. Charles Foley, American game designer, co-creator of Twister (b. 1930) deaths
  1. Charles Foley (inventor)
    
    Charles Foley was the co-inventor of the game Twister, with Neil W. Rabens.
  2. Twister (game)
    
    Twister is a game of physical skill produced by Milton Bradley Company and Winning Moves Games USA. It is played on a large plastic mat that is spread on the floor or ground. The mat has six rows of large colored circles on it with a different color in each row: red, yellow, green, and blue. A spinner tells players where they have to place their hand or foot. The game promotes itself as "the game that ties you up in knots".
3. William H. Gray, American minister and politician (b. 1941) deaths
  1. William H. Gray III
    
    William Herbert Gray III was an American politician and member of the Democratic Party who represented Pennsylvania's 2nd congressional district from 1979 to 1991. He also served as chairman of the House Committee on the Budget from 1985 to 1989 and House Majority Whip from 1989 to 1991. He resigned from Congress in September of that year to become president and chief executive officer of the United Negro College Fund, a position he held until 2004.
2012
1. Peter E. Gillquist, American priest and author (b. 1938) deaths
  1. Peter E. Gillquist
    
    Peter Edward Gillquist was an American archpriest in the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America and retired chairman of the archdiocese's department of missions and evangelism. He was chairman of Conciliar Press and the author of numerous books, including Love Is Now, The Physical Side of Being Spiritual and Becoming Orthodox. He also served as project director of the Orthodox Study Bible and, from 1997, served as the National Chaplain of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity.
2. Ossie Hibbert, Jamaican-American keyboard player and producer (b. 1950) deaths
  1. Ossie Hibbert
    
    Oswald "Ossie" Hibbert was a Jamaican organist, keyboard player and record producer.
3. Evelyn Lear, American operatic soprano (b. 1926) deaths
  1. Evelyn Lear
    
    Evelyn Shulman Lear was an American operatic soprano. Between 1959 and 1992, she appeared in more than forty operatic roles, appeared with every major opera company in the United States and won a Grammy Award in 1966. She was well known for her musical versatility, having sung all three main female roles in Der Rosenkavalier. Lear was also known for her work on 20th century pieces by Robert Ward, Alban Berg, Marvin David Levy, Rudolf Kelterborn and Giselher Klebe. She was married to the American bass-baritone Thomas Stewart until his death in 2006.
4. Alan G. Poindexter, American captain, pilot and astronaut (b. 1961) deaths
  1. Alan G. Poindexter
    
    Alan Goodwin "Dex" Poindexter was an American naval officer and a NASA astronaut. Poindexter was selected in the 1998 NASA Group (G17) and went into orbit aboard Space Shuttle missions STS-122 and STS-131.
5. Jack Richardson, American author and playwright (b. 1934) deaths
  1. Jack Richardson (writer)
    
    Jack Carter Richardson was an American writer born in Manhattan, and his birthplace erroneously has been reported as Bristol, Virginia. He was known for his existentialist dramas of the early 1960s.
2010
1. Don Coryell, American football player and coach (b. 1924) deaths
  1. Don Coryell
    
    Donald David Coryell was an American football coach, who coached in the National Football League (NFL) first with the St. Louis Cardinals from 1973 to 1977 and then the San Diego Chargers from 1978 to 1986.
2. Arnold Friberg, American painter and illustrator (b. 1913) deaths
  1. Arnold Friberg
    
    Arnold Friberg was an American illustrator and painter noted for his religious and patriotic works. He is perhaps best known for his 1975 painting The Prayer at Valley Forge, a depiction of George Washington praying at Valley Forge. He is also well known for his 15 "pre-visualization" paintings for the Cecil B. DeMille film The Ten Commandments which were used to promote the film worldwide and for which he received an Academy Award nomination.
3. Ilene Woods, American actress and singer (b. 1929) deaths
  1. Ilene Woods
    
    Jacqueline Ruth Woods better known as Ilene Woods, was an American actress and singer. Woods was the original voice of the title character of the Walt Disney animated feature Cinderella, for which she was named a Disney Legend in 2003.
2009
1. Karl Malden, American actor (b. 1912) deaths
  1. Karl Malden
    
    Karl Malden was an American actor. He was primarily a character actor, who according to Robert Berkvist, "for more than 60 years brought an intelligent intensity and a homespun authenticity to roles in theater, film, and television", especially in such classic films as A Streetcar Named Desire (1951), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, On the Waterfront (1954), Pollyanna (1960), and One-Eyed Jacks (1961). Malden also played in high-profile Hollywood films such as Baby Doll (1956), The Hanging Tree (1959), How the West Was Won (1962), Gypsy (1962), and Patton (1970).
2. Onni Palaste, Finnish soldier and author (b. 1917) deaths
  1. Onni Palaste
    
    Onni Palaste, born Onni Bovellan was a Finnish Winter War veteran and writer.
3. Mollie Sugden, English actress (b. 1922) deaths
  1. Mollie Sugden
    
    Mary Isobel Sugden, known professionally as Mollie Sugden was an English actress. She was best known for being an original cast member in the British sitcom Are You Being Served? (1972–1985) as senior saleswoman Mrs. Slocombe and appeared reprising the character in the AYBS spin-off Grace & Favour (1992–1993).
2008
1. Mel Galley, English guitarist (b. 1948) deaths
  1. Mel Galley
    
    Melville John Galley was an English guitarist, singer and songwriter, best known for his work with Whitesnake, Trapeze, Finders Keepers and Phenomena.
2006
1. Ryutaro Hashimoto, Japanese politician, 53rd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1937) deaths
  1. Ryutaro Hashimoto
    
    Ryutaro Hashimoto was a Japanese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Japan from 1996 to 1998. He was the leader of one of the largest factions within the ruling LDP through most of the 1990s and remained a powerful back-room player in Japanese politics until scandal forced him to resign his leadership position in 2004. Disgraced, he chose not to stand in the general election of 2005, and effectively retired from politics. He died on 1 July 2006 at a Tokyo hospital.
  2. Prime Minister of Japan
    
    The prime minister of Japan is the head of government of Japan. The prime minister chairs the Cabinet of Japan and has the ability to select and dismiss its Ministers of State. The prime minister also serves as the civilian commander-in-chief of the Japan Self Defence Forces and as a sitting member of the House of Representatives. The individual is appointed by the emperor of Japan after being nominated by the National Diet and must retain the nomination of the lower house and answer to parliament to remain in office.
2. Robert Lepikson, Estonian race car driver and politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior (b. 1952) deaths
  1. Robert Lepikson
    
    Robert Lepikson was an Estonian politician, businessman and rally driver/co-driver.
  2. Ministry of the Interior (Estonia)
    
    The Ministry of the Interior of Estonia is a Ministry in the Estonian Government. The current Minister of the Interior is Lauri Läänemets.
3. Fred Trueman, English cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1931) deaths
  1. Fred Trueman
    
    Frederick Sewards Trueman, was an English cricketer who played for Yorkshire County Cricket Club and the England cricket team. He had professional status and later became an author and broadcaster.
2005
1. Renaldo Benson, American singer-songwriter (Four Tops) (b. 1936) deaths
  1. Renaldo Benson
    
    Renaldo "Obie" Benson was an American soul and R&B singer and songwriter. He was best known as a founding member and the bass singer of Motown group the Four Tops, which he joined in 1953 and continued to perform with for over five decades, until April 8, 2005. He also co-wrote "What's Going On" which became a No. 2 hit for Marvin Gaye in 1971, and which Rolling Stone rated as No. 4 on their List of Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time released in 2004.
  2. Four Tops
    
    The Four Tops are an American vocal quartet from Detroit who helped to define the city's Motown sound of the 1960s. The group's repertoire has included soul music, R&B, disco, adult contemporary, doo-wop, jazz, and show tunes.
2. Gus Bodnar, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1923) deaths
  1. Gus Bodnar
    
    August "Gus" Bodnar was a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who was the Calder Memorial Trophy winner as the National Hockey League's rookie of the year for the 1943-44 season. He played 12 seasons in the NHL from 1943 to 1955, for the Toronto Maple Leafs, Chicago Black Hawks and Boston Bruins.
3. Luther Vandross, American singer-songwriter and producer (Change) (b. 1951) deaths
  1. Luther Vandross
    
    Luther Ronzoni Vandross Jr. was an American singer, songwriter, and record producer. Known for his sweet and soulful vocals, Vandross has sold over 40 million records worldwide. He achieved eleven consecutive Platinum albums and eight Grammy Awards, including Best Male R&B Vocal Performance four different times. In 2004, Vandross won a total of four Grammy Awards, including the Grammy Award for Song of the Year for a song recorded not long before his death, "Dance with My Father".
  2. Change (band)
    
    Change is an Italian-American post-disco group formed in Bologna, Italy, in 1979 by businessman and executive producer Jacques Fred Petrus (1948–1987) and Mauro Malavasi. They were heavily influenced by the disco band Chic. The current incarnation of the group formed in 2018.
2004
1. Peter Barnes, English playwright and screenwriter (b. 1931) deaths
  1. Peter Barnes (playwright)
    
    Peter Barnes was an English Olivier Award-winning playwright and screenwriter. His best known work is the play The Ruling Class, which was made into a 1972 film for which Peter O'Toole received an Oscar nomination.
2. Marlon Brando, American actor and director (b. 1924) deaths
  1. Marlon Brando
    
    Marlon Brando Jr. was an American actor. Considered one of the most influential actors of the 20th century, he received numerous accolades throughout his career, which spanned six decades, including two Academy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, one Cannes Film Festival Award and three British Academy Film Awards. Brando was also an activist for many causes, notably the civil rights movement and various Native American movements. Having studied with Stella Adler in the 1940s, he is credited with being one of the first actors to bring the Stanislavski system of acting, and method acting, to mainstream audiences.
3. Todor Skalovski, Macedonian composer and conductor (b. 1909) deaths
  1. Todor Skalovski
    
    Todor Skalovski was a Macedonian composer, chorus and orchestra conductor who wrote the music to North Macedonia's national anthem "Denes nad Makedonija". The music greatly resembles an old Macedonian folk song, "Надежда болна е легнала". Skalovski transcribed the folk song and claimed it as his own.
2003
1. Tate McRae, Canadian singer-songwriter and dancer births
  1. Tate McRae
    
    Tate Rosner McRae, known commonly as Tate McRae, is a Canadian singer, songwriter, dancer and actress. At the age of thirteen, she gained prominence as the first Canadian finalist on the American reality TV show So You Think You Can Dance. McRae caught the attention of RCA Records in 2019 after her original song "One Day" (2017) went viral on YouTube and TikTok, subsequently releasing her debut EP, All the Things I Never Said (2020). McRae soon gained wider recognition after her song "You Broke Me First" became an international hit. In 2021, McRae was the youngest musician featured on Forbes' 30 Under 30 list. Her second EP, Too Young to Be Sad (2021) was the most streamed female EP of 2021 on Spotify. Her debut studio album, I Used to Think I Could Fly, was released on May 27, 2022. The album was met with positive reviews from critics and reached the top 10 in various countries, and also entered at number thirteen on the US Billboard 200.
2. Herbie Mann, American flute player and saxophonist (b. 1930) deaths
  1. Herbie Mann
    
    Herbert Jay Solomon, known by his stage name Herbie Mann, was an American jazz flute player and important early practitioner of world music. Early in his career, he also played tenor saxophone and clarinet, but Mann was among the first jazz musicians to specialize on the flute. His most popular single was "Hi-Jack", which was a Billboard No. 1 dance hit for three weeks in 1975.
2001
1. Chosen Jacobs, American entertainer births
  1. Chosen Jacobs
    
    Chosen Jacobs is an American actor and singer best known for his recurring role as Will Grover on the CBS television series Hawaii Five-0 and his role as Mike Hanlon in the 2017 film adaptation of the Stephen King novel It, and its follow-up It Chapter Two.
2. Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1922) deaths
  1. Nikolay Basov
    
    Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov was a Soviet physicist and educator. For his fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics that led to the development of laser and maser, Basov shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics with Alexander Prokhorov and Charles Hard Townes.
  2. Nobel Prize in Physics
    
    The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions for humankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901, the others being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Physics is traditionally the first award presented in the Nobel Prize ceremony.
3. Jean-Louis Rosier, French race car driver (b. 1925) deaths
  1. Jean-Louis Rosier
    
    Jean-Louis Rosier was the son of Louis Rosier. Together they won the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1950, of which all except for 2 laps were driven by Louis Rosier. The Charade Circuit near Clermont-Ferrand is also named after them.
2000
1. Lalu Muhammad Zohri, Indonesian sprinter births
  1. Lalu Muhammad Zohri
    
    Lalu Muhammad Zohri is an Indonesian track and field sprinter. He is the first Indonesian male to win any medal at the IAAF World U20 Championships by winning a gold medal in the 100m. He is the current holder of the Indonesian 100m and 200m national records, and is labelled the "fastest man in Southeast Asia".
2. Walter Matthau, American actor (b. 1920) deaths
  1. Walter Matthau
    
    Walter Matthau was an American actor, comedian and film director.
1999
1. Edward Dmytryk, Canadian-American director and producer (b. 1908) deaths
  1. Edward Dmytryk
    
    Edward Dmytryk was an American film director. He was known for his 1940s noir films and received an Oscar nomination for Best Director for Crossfire (1947). In 1947, he was named as one of the Hollywood Ten, a group of blacklisted film industry professionals who refused to testify to the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in their investigations during the McCarthy-era Red Scare. They all served time in prison for contempt of Congress. In 1951, however, Dmytryk testified to the HUAC and named individuals, including Arnold Manoff, whose careers were then destroyed for many years, to rehabilitate his own career. First hired again by independent producer Stanley Kramer in 1952, Dmytryk is likely best known for directing The Caine Mutiny (1954), a critical and commercial success. The second-highest-grossing film of the year, it was nominated for Best Picture and several other awards at the 1955 Oscars. Dmytryk was nominated for a Directors Guild Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures.
2. Forrest Mars Sr., American businessman, creator of M&M's and the Mars chocolate bar (b. 1904) deaths
  1. Forrest Mars Sr.
    
    Forrest Edward Mars Sr. was an American billionaire businessman and the driving force of the Mars candy empire. He is best known for introducing Milky Way (1924) and Mars (1932) chocolate candy bars, and M&M's (1941) chocolate candy, as well as orchestrating the launch of Uncle Ben's Rice. He was the son of candy company Mars, Inc. founder Frank C. Mars and his first wife Ethel G. Mars.
  2. M&M's
    
    M&M's are multi-colored button-shaped chocolates, each of which has the letter "m" printed in lower case in white on one side, consisting of a candy shell surrounding a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M's. The original candy has a semi-sweet chocolate filling which, upon introduction of other variations, was branded as the "plain, normal" variety. Peanut M&M's, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties while others are limited in duration or geographic availability. M&M's are the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated.
  3. Mars (chocolate bar)
    
    Mars, commonly known as Mars bar, is the name of two varieties of chocolate bar produced by Mars, Incorporated. It was first manufactured in 1932 in Slough, England by Forrest Mars, Sr. The bar consists of caramel and nougat coated with milk chocolate.
3. Sylvia Sidney, American actress (b. 1910) deaths
  1. Sylvia Sidney
    
    Sylvia Sidney was an American stage, screen and film actress whose career spanned over 70 years. She rose to prominence in dozens of leading roles in the 1930s. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in Summer Wishes, Winter Dreams in 1973. She later gained attention for her role as Juno, a case worker in the afterlife, in Tim Burton's 1988 film Beetlejuice, for which she won a Saturn Award as Best Supporting Actress.
4. Sola Sierra, Chilean human rights activist (b. 1935) deaths
  1. Sola Sierra
    
    Sola Sierra was a Chilean human rights activist. She was director of Relatives of the Detained-Disappeared and campaigned to find out the truth about the people who disappeared during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship.
1998
1. Susan Bandecchi, Swiss tennis player births
  1. Susan Bandecchi
    
    Susan Bandecchi is a Swiss tennis player. She reached a career-high singles ranking of world No. 164 on 7 March 2022 and doubles ranking of world No. 141 on 11 July 2022.
2. Aleksandra Golovkina, Lithuanian figure skater births
  1. Aleksandra Golovkina
    
    Aleksandra Golovkina is a Lithuanian figure skater. She is the 2014 CS Warsaw Cup bronze medalist and a six-time Lithuanian national champion. She has qualified to the free skate at three European Championships.
1997
1. Robert Mitchum, American actor (b. 1917) deaths
  1. Robert Mitchum
    
    Robert Charles Durman Mitchum was an American actor. He rose to prominence with an Academy Award nomination for the Best Supporting Actor for The Story of G.I. Joe (1945), followed by his starring in several classic film noirs. His acting is generally considered a forerunner of the antiheroes prevalent in film during the 1950s and 1960s. His best-known films include Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944), Out of the Past (1947), River of No Return (1954), The Night of the Hunter (1955), Thunder Road (1958), Cape Fear (1962), El Dorado (1966), Ryan's Daughter (1970) and The Friends of Eddie Coyle (1973). He is also known for his television role as U.S. Navy Captain Victor "Pug" Henry in the epic miniseries The Winds of War (1983) and sequel War and Remembrance (1988).
2. Charles Werner, American cartoonist (b. 1909) deaths
  1. Charles Werner
    
    Charles George Werner was an American editorial cartoonist who won a Pulitzer Prize in 1939 and later worked 47 years for the Indianapolis Star.
1996
1. Adelina Sotnikova, Russian figure skater births
  1. Adelina Sotnikova
    
    Adelina Dmitriyevna Sotnikova is a retired Russian figure skater. She is the 2014 Olympic champion, a two-time European silver medalist, a two-time Rostelecom Cup bronze medalist, and a four-time Russian national champion.
2. William T. Cahill, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of New Jersey (b. 1904) deaths
  1. William T. Cahill
    
    William Thomas Cahill was an American Republican Party politician who served as the 46th governor of New Jersey, from 1970 to 1974, and who represented New Jersey's 1st congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1959 to 1967 and the state's 6th district from 1967 to 1970.
  2. Governor of New Jersey
    
    The governor of New Jersey is the head of government of New Jersey. The office of governor is an elected position with a four-year term. There is a two consecutive term term limit, with no limitation on non-consecutive terms. The official residence of the governor is Drumthwacket, a mansion located in Princeton, New Jersey. The governor’s office is located inside of the New Jersey State House in Trenton, making New Jersey notable as the executive’s office is located in the same building as the legislature. New Jersey is also notable for being one of the few states in which the governor’s official residence is not located in the state capital.
3. Margaux Hemingway, American model and actress (b. 1954) deaths
  1. Margaux Hemingway
    
    Margaux Louise Hemingway was an American fashion model and actress. She gained success as a supermodel in the mid-1970s, appearing on the covers of magazines including Cosmopolitan, Elle, Harper's Bazaar, Vogue, and Time.
4. Steve Tesich, Serbian-American author and screenwriter (b. 1942) deaths
  1. Steve Tesich
    
    Stojan Steve Tesich was a Serbian-American screenwriter, playwright, and novelist. He won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1979 for the film Breaking Away. Tesich is also credited as the inventor of the term "post-truth".
1995
1. Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo, Belgian footballer births
  1. Boli Bolingoli
    
    Boli Bolingoli-Mbombo is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a left midfielder or defender for Belgian club Mechelen.
2. Savvy Shields, Miss America 2017 births
  1. Savvy Shields
    
    Savannah Janine Shields Wolfe is an American beauty pageant titleholder from Fayetteville, Arkansas, who was crowned Miss Arkansas 2016. On September 11, 2016, she was crowned Miss America 2017 by Miss America 2016, Betty Cantrell.
  2. Miss America 2017
    
    Miss America 2017, the 90th Miss America pageant, was held at the Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on Sunday, September 11, 2016. The event was broadcast by ABC in the United States, the first in the network's newest agreement to carry the pageant until 2019, with Dick Clark Productions producing the ceremony.
3. Wolfman Jack, American radio host (b. 1938) deaths
  1. Wolfman Jack
    
    Robert Weston Smith, known as Wolfman Jack, was an American disc jockey active from 1960 till his death in 1995. Famous for his gravelly voice, he credited it for his success, saying, "It's kept meat and potatoes on the table for years for Wolfman and Wolfwoman. A couple of shots of whiskey helps it. I've got that nice raspy sound."
4. Ian Parkin, English guitarist (Be-Bop Deluxe) (b. 1950) deaths
  1. Ian Parkin
    
    Ian Richard Parkin was a musician who played rhythm guitar with the first incarnation of Bill Nelson's Be-Bop Deluxe.
  2. Be-Bop Deluxe
    
    Be-Bop Deluxe were an English rock band who achieved critical acclaim and moderate commercial success during the mid to late 1970s.
1994
1. Chloé Paquet, French tennis player births
  1. Chloé Paquet
    
    Chloé Paquet is a French professional tennis player. She has achieved career-high WTA rankings of No. 101 in singles on 25 April 2022 and 247 in doubles on 12 June 2017.
2. Merriam Modell, American author (b. 1908) deaths
  1. Merriam Modell
    
    Merriam Modell was an American writer of short stories, suspense and pulp fiction, who wrote primarily under the pen name Evelyn Piper. Many had a common theme: the domestic conflicts faced by American families.
1992
1. Aaron Sanchez, American baseball player births
  1. Aaron Sanchez (baseball)
    
    Aaron Jacob Sanchez is an American professional baseball pitcher who is a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Toronto Blue Jays, Houston Astros, San Francisco Giants, Washington Nationals and Minnesota Twins. He was drafted by the Blue Jays in the first round of the 2010 Major League Baseball draft, and made his MLB debut in 2014. In 2015, Sanchez was ranked by MLB as the number 3 prospect in the Blue Jays' organization, and the 44th best prospect in baseball.
2. Franco Cristaldi, Italian screenwriter and producer (b. 1924) deaths
  1. Franco Cristaldi
    
    Franco Cristaldi was an Italian film producer, credited with producing feature films from the 1950s to the 1990s.
1991
1. Michael Wacha, American baseball player births
  1. Michael Wacha
    
    Michael Joseph Wacha is an American professional baseball pitcher who is a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, New York Mets, Tampa Bay Rays and Boston Red Sox. He played college baseball for the Texas A&M Aggies.
2. Michael Landon, American actor, director and producer (b. 1936) deaths
  1. Michael Landon
    
    Michael Landon was an American actor and filmmaker. He is known for his roles as Little Joe Cartwright in Bonanza (1959–1973), Charles Ingalls in Little House on the Prairie (1974–1983), and Jonathan Smith in Highway to Heaven (1984–1989). Landon appeared on the cover of TV Guide 22 times, second only to Lucille Ball.
1990
1. Ben Coker, English footballer births
  1. Ben Coker
    
    Ben Coker is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender or as a midfielder for National League club Solihull Moors.
2. Jurriaan Schrofer, Dutch sculptor, designer and educator (b. 1926) deaths
  1. Jurriaan Schrofer
    
    Jurriaan Willem Schrofer was a Dutch sculptor, graphic designer, type designer, and art school educator.
1989
1. Kent Bazemore, American basketball player births
  1. Kent Bazemore
    
    Kenneth Lamont "Kent" Bazemore Jr. is an American professional basketball player who is currently a free agent. As a junior at Old Dominion University in 2010–11, Bazemore won the Lefty Driesell Award, an award given to the best defensive player in college basketball.
2. Daniel Ricciardo, Australian race car driver births
  1. Daniel Ricciardo
    
    Daniel Joseph Ricciardo is an Italian-Australian racing driver who last raced in Formula One driving for McLaren, under the Australian flag. He made his debut at the 2011 British Grand Prix with the HRT team as part of a deal with Red Bull Racing, for whom he was test driving under its sister team Scuderia Toro Rosso. He has achieved 8 Grand Prix victories in Formula One. He will be 3rd driver for Red Bull Racing in 2023.
1988
1. Dedé, Brazilian footballer births
  1. Dedé (footballer, born 1988)
    
    Anderson Vital da Silva, commonly known as Dedé is a Brazilian footballer who plays as a centre back.
2. Aleksander Lesun, Russian modern pentathlete births
  1. Aleksander Lesun
    
    Aleksander Leonidovich Lesun is a Belarusian-Russian modern pentathlete. He is a multiple-time medalist at the World and European Championships, and was a top-ranked male modern pentathlete in the world by the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne (UIPM).
1987
1. Michael Schrader, German decathlete births
  1. Michael Schrader
    
    Michael Schrader is a German decathlete. He finished tenth at the 2008 Olympic Games. His personal best score is 8670 points, winning him the silver medal at the 2013 World Championships in Moscow.
1986
1. Charlie Blackmon, American baseball player births
  1. Charlie Blackmon
    
    Charles Cobb Blackmon, nicknamed "Chuck Nazty", is an American professional baseball outfielder for the Colorado Rockies of Major League Baseball (MLB). He made his MLB debut in 2011, as a member of the Rockies. Blackmon throws and bats left-handed, stands 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m), and weighs 221 pounds (100 kg).
2. Andrew Lee, Australian footballer births
  1. Andrew Lee (Australian footballer)
    
    Andrew Dwayne Lee is an Australian rules footballer who played with the Essendon Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). He was drafted from the Burnie Dockers, via the Tassie Mariners U18s and the Tasmanian Devils, with selection 30 in the 2004 Draft.
3. Julian Prochnow, German footballer births
  1. Julian Prochnow
    
    Julian Prochnow is a German footballer who plays for SV Babelsberg 03.
1985
1. Chris Perez, American baseball player births
  1. Chris Perez (baseball)
    
    Christopher Ralph Perez is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He pitched collegiately for the University of Miami, and was selected by the St. Louis Cardinals in the first round of the 2006 Major League Baseball Draft. Perez also played for the Cleveland Indians and Los Angeles Dodgers.
1984
1. Donald Thomas, Bahamian high jumper births
  1. Donald Thomas (high jumper)
    
    Donald Thomas is a Bahamian high jumper from Freeport, Bahamas.
2. Moshé Feldenkrais, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1904) deaths
  1. Moshé Feldenkrais
    
    Moshé Pinchas Feldenkrais was a Ukrainian-Israeli engineer and physicist, known as the founder of the Feldenkrais Method, a system of physical exercise that aims to improve human functioning by increasing self-awareness through movement.
1983
1. Leeteuk, South Korean singer and entertainer births
  1. Leeteuk
    
    Park Jeong-su, known professionally as Leeteuk, is a South Korean singer, songwriter, presenter, radio personality and actor. He debuted as the leader of the boy band Super Junior in November 2005 and since then has participated in its subgroups Super Junior-T and Super Junior-H. He began his career as a television presenter on the music show M! Countdown. He is best known for his role in presenting Strong Heart, Star King, The Best Cooking Secrets, I Can See Your Voice, and Idol Star Athletics Championships.
2. Buckminster Fuller, American architect, designed the Montreal Biosphère (b. 1895) deaths
  1. Buckminster Fuller
    
    Richard Buckminster Fuller was an American architect, systems theorist, writer, designer, inventor, philosopher, and futurist. He styled his name as R. Buckminster Fuller in his writings, publishing more than 30 books and coining or popularizing such terms as "Spaceship Earth", "Dymaxion", "ephemeralization", "synergetics", and "tensegrity".
  2. Montreal Biosphere
    
    The Biosphere, also known as the Montreal Biosphere, is a museum dedicated to the environment in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is housed in the former United States pavilion constructed for Expo 67 located within the grounds of Parc Jean-Drapeau on Saint Helen's Island. The museum's geodesic dome was designed by Buckminster Fuller.
1982
1. Justin Huber, Australian baseball player births
  1. Justin Huber
    
    Justin Patrick Huber is an Australian former professional baseball player. A first baseman and outfielder, Huber has played in Major League Baseball, Nippon Professional Baseball, and the Australian Baseball League. He has also played for the Australian national baseball team in international competitions.
2. Joachim Johansson, Swedish tennis player births
  1. Joachim Johansson
    
    Joachim Johansson is a former professional male tennis player from Sweden. He reached the semifinals of the 2004 US Open, won 3 singles titles and achieved a career-high singles ranking of World No. 9 in February 2005.
3. Adrian Ward, American football player births
  1. Adrian Ward (American football)
    
    Adrian Michael Ward is a former cornerback for the Minnesota Vikings and the New York Giants. He played college football for the University of Texas at El Paso, after attending Chabot College in Hayward, California. He was drafted by the Vikings in the seventh round of the 2005 NFL Draft. Waived by the Vikings in September 2005, Ward was signed a little over a week later to the Giants' practice squad, on which he competed briefly. In 2007, the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League (CFL) signed him as a free agent.
4. Hilarie Burton, American actress births
  1. Hilarie Burton
    
    Hilarie Ros Burton is an American actress, businesswoman, author and producer. A former host of MTV's Total Request Live, she portrayed Peyton Sawyer on The WB/CW drama One Tree Hill for six seasons (2003–2009). Post One Tree Hill, Burton starred in Our Very Own, Solstice, and The List. She has also had supporting or recurring roles in television series, including her role as Sara Ellis on White Collar (2010–2013), Dr. Lauren Boswell on the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy (2013), Molly Dawes on the ABC drama series Forever (2014), and Karen Palmer on the Fox television series Lethal Weapon (2016).
1981
1. Carlo Del Fava, South African-Italian rugby player births
  1. Carlo Del Fava
    
    Carlo Antonio Del Fava is a South African-born Italian former rugby union player. His preferred position was Lock. After hanging his boots up he then decided to take up coaching.
2. Tadhg Kennelly, Irish-Australian footballer births
  1. Tadhg Kennelly
    
    Tadhg Kennelly is an Irish-Australian former international sportsperson turned recruiter and coach. He is most known for his top-level careers in both Gaelic football and Australian rules football being the only holder of both an AFL Premiership medallion and a Senior All-Ireland Championship medal, the highest-possible team-based achievement in both sports. He has also represented Ireland in the International Rules Series.
3. Carlos de Oliveira, Portuguese author and poet (b. 1921) deaths
  1. Carlos de Oliveira
    
    Carlos de Oliveira, GOSE, was a Portuguese poet and novelist.
1980
1. Nelson Cruz, Dominican-American baseball player births
  1. Nelson Cruz
    
    Nelson Ramón Cruz Martínez Jr. is a Dominican-American professional baseball designated hitter and right fielder who is a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Milwaukee Brewers, Texas Rangers, Baltimore Orioles, Seattle Mariners, Minnesota Twins, Tampa Bay Rays and Washington Nationals. Cruz is a seven-time MLB All-Star. Known for his power hitting, he has won four Silver Slugger Awards and two Edgar Martínez Awards.
1979
1. Forrest Griffin, American mixed martial artist and actor births
  1. Forrest Griffin
    
    Forrest Griffin is an American retired mixed martial artist and former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion. He was inducted into the UFC Hall of Fame in 2013 and currently serves as the Vice President of Athlete Development at the UFC Performance Institute. Griffin, a former Georgia police officer, first rose to prominence after winning the first season of The Ultimate Fighter. In the tournament finals, he defeated Stephan Bonnar, which is widely credited as sparking the success of the UFC.
1978
1. Kurt Student, German general and pilot (b. 1890) deaths
  1. Kurt Student
    
    Kurt Arthur Benno Student was a German general in the Luftwaffe during World War II. An early pioneer of airborne forces, Student was in overall command of developing a paratrooper force to be known as the Fallschirmjäger, and as the most senior member of the Fallschirmjäger, commanded it throughout the war. Student led the first major airborne attack in history, the Battle for The Hague, in May 1940. He also commanded the Fallschirmjäger in its last major airborne operation, the invasion of Crete in May 1941. The operation was a success despite German losses, and led the Allies to hasten the training and development of their own airborne units.
1977
1. Tom Frager, Senegalese-French singer-songwriter and guitarist births
  1. Tom Frager
    
    Tom Frager is a French songwriter and performer in the group Gwayav' and is ten times a surfer winner in Guadeloupe. He is primarily known for his French hit "Lady Melody", which was number-one for four weeks.
2. Keigo Hayashi, Japanese musician births
  1. Flow (Japanese band)
    
    Flow is a Japanese rock band formed in 1998 as a five-piece band made up of two vocalists, a drummer, a bassist, and a guitarist. They are signed to Sacra Music. As of April 2022, the band has released 38 singles, 2 collaboration singles with Granrodeo and 11 studio albums. Their songs have been featured in the opening sequences of several anime and Japanese drama series.
3. Jarome Iginla, Canadian ice hockey player births
  1. Jarome Iginla
    
    Jarome Arthur-Leigh Adekunle Tig Junior Elvis Iginla is a Canadian former professional ice hockey winger. He played over 1500 games in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Calgary Flames, Pittsburgh Penguins, Boston Bruins, Colorado Avalanche and Los Angeles Kings.
4. Liv Tyler, American actress births
  1. Liv Tyler
    
    Liv Rundgren Tyler is an American actress, producer, singer and former model. She began a modeling career at age 14. She later decided to focus on acting and made her film debut in Silent Fall (1994); she went on to achieve critical recognition with starring roles in Heavy and Empire Records, as well as That Thing You Do! and Stealing Beauty. She then appeared in films such as Inventing the Abbotts (1997), Armageddon (1998), Cookie's Fortune and Onegin, Dr. T & the Women (2000), and One Night at McCool's (2001). She then played Arwen Undómiel in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001–2003), which became one of the highest-grossing film series in history.
1976
1. Patrick Kluivert, Dutch footballer and coach births
  1. Patrick Kluivert
    
    Patrick Stephan Kluivert is a Dutch former football player, coach and sporting director. He played as a striker, most notably for AFC Ajax, FC Barcelona and the Netherlands national team.
2. Hannu Tihinen, Finnish footballer births
  1. Hannu Tihinen
    
    Hannu Tihinen is a Finnish former professional footballer who played as a centre-back. He has worked since January 2014 as a sports director at the Football Association of Finland.
3. Albert Torrens, Australian rugby league player births
  1. Albert Torrens
    
    Albert Torrens is an Australian former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1990s and 2000s. He played for the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, Northern Eagles and St. George Illawarra Dragons in the NRL and in England for the Huddersfield Giants of Super League as a centre and on the wing.
4. Ruud van Nistelrooy, Dutch footballer and manager births
  1. Ruud van Nistelrooy
    
    Rutgerus Johannes Martinus van Nistelrooij is a Dutch professional football coach and former player. He is currently the coach of PSV Eindhoven.
5. Szymon Ziółkowski, Polish hammer thrower births
  1. Szymon Ziółkowski
    
    Szymon Jerzy Ziółkowski is a retired Polish hammer thrower and an Olympic gold medal winner from Sydney 2000. He also won a gold medal at the 2001 World Championships in Edmonton with a career best throw of 83.38 metres, and two silvers at the 2005 and 2009 editions in Helsinki and Berlin respectively.
1975
1. Sean Colson, American basketball player and coach births
  1. Sean Colson
    
    Sean Tyree Colson is an American former professional basketball player. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At a height of 6'0" tall, he played at the point guard position.
2. Sufjan Stevens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist births
  1. Sufjan Stevens
    
    Sufjan Stevens is an American singer, songwriter, and multi-instrumentalist. He has released nine solo studio albums and multiple collaborative albums with other artists. Stevens has received Grammy and Academy Award nominations.
1974
1. Jefferson Pérez, Ecuadorian race walker births
  1. Jefferson Pérez
    
    Jefferson Leonardo Pérez Quezada is an Ecuadorian retired race walker. He specialized in the 20 km event, in which he won the first two medals his country achieved in the Olympic Games.
2. Juan Perón, Argentinian general and politician, President of Argentina (b. 1895) deaths
  1. Juan Perón
    
    Juan Domingo Perón was an Argentine Army general and politician. After serving in several government positions, including Minister of Labour and Vice President of a military dictatorship, he was elected President of Argentina three times, serving from June 1946 to September 1955, when he was overthrown by the Revolución Libertadora, and then from October 1973 until his death in July 1974.
  2. President of Argentina
    
    The president of Argentina, officially known as the president of the Argentine Nation, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national constitution, the president is also the chief executive of the federal government and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
1971
1. Missy Elliott, American rapper, producer, dancer and actress births
  1. Missy Elliott
    
    Melissa Arnette Elliott, better known as Missy Elliott, is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer. She embarked on her music career with R&B girl group Sista in the early-mid 1990s and later became a member of the Swing Mob collective along with childhood friend and longtime collaborator Timbaland, with whom she worked on projects for American R&B acts Aaliyah, 702, Total, and SWV. Following several collaborations and guest appearances, she launched her solo career in 1997 with her debut album Supa Dupa Fly, which spawned the top 20 single "Sock It 2 Me". The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, the highest charting debut for a female rapper at the time.
2. Julianne Nicholson, American actress births
  1. Julianne Nicholson
    
    Julianne Nicholson is an American actress. She is best known for her roles in the films August: Osage County (2013) and Blonde (2022), as well as the television series Law & Order: Criminal Intent (2006–2009), Masters of Sex (2013–2014), and Mare of Easttown (2021), the lattermost of which earned her a Primetime Emmy Award.
3. William Lawrence Bragg, Australian-English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1890) deaths
  1. Lawrence Bragg
    
    Sir William Lawrence Bragg, was an Australian-born British physicist and X-ray crystallographer, discoverer (1912) of Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction, which is basic for the determination of crystal structure. He was joint recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915, "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays"; an important step in the development of X-ray crystallography.
  2. Nobel Prize in Physics
    
    The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions for humankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901, the others being the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Physics is traditionally the first award presented in the Nobel Prize ceremony.
4. Learie Constantine, Trinidadian-English cricketer, lawyer and politician (b. 1901) deaths
  1. Learie Constantine
    
    Learie Nicholas Constantine, Baron Constantine, was a West Indian cricketer, lawyer and politician who served as Trinidad and Tobago's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and became the UK's first black peer. He played 18 Test matches before the Second World War and took the West Indies' first wicket in Test cricket. An advocate against racial discrimination, in later life he was influential in the passing of the 1965 Race Relations Act in Britain. He was knighted in 1962 and made a life peer in 1969.
1969
1. Séamus Egan, American-Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist births
  1. Séamus Egan
    
    Séamus Egan is an American musician.
1968
1. Fritz Bauer, German judge and politician (b. 1903) deaths
  1. Fritz Bauer
    
    Fritz Bauer was a German Jewish judge and prosecutor. He was instrumental in the post-war capture of former Holocaust planner Adolf Eichmann and played an essential role in beginning the Frankfurt Auschwitz trials.
1967
1. Pamela Anderson, Canadian-American model and actress births
  1. Pamela Anderson
    
    Pamela Denise Anderson is a Canadian-American actress and model. She is best known for her glamour modeling work in Playboy magazine and for her appearances on the television series Baywatch (1992–1997).
2. Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (b. 1888) deaths
  1. Gerhard Ritter
    
    Gerhard Georg Bernhard Ritter was a nationalist-conservative German historian, who served as a professor of history at the University of Freiburg from 1925 to 1956. He studied under Professor Hermann Oncken. A Lutheran, he first became well known for his 1925 biography of Martin Luther and hagiographic portrayal of Prussia. A member of the German People's Party during the Weimar Republic, he was a lifelong monarchist and remained sympathetic to the political system of the defunct German Empire.
1966
1. Enrico Annoni, Italian footballer and coach births
  1. Enrico Annoni
    
    Enrico Annoni is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a defender.
2. Shawn Burr, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2013) births
  1. Shawn Burr
    
    Shawn Christopher Burr was a professional ice hockey left winger. Burr played in the NHL for parts of 16 seasons from 1985 to 2000.
3. Frank Verner, American runner (b. 1883) deaths
  1. Frank Verner
    
    Frank Verner was an American athlete and middle-distance runner who competed in the early twentieth century.
1965
1. Carl Fogarty, English motorcycle racer births
  1. Carl Fogarty
    
    Carl George Fogarty,, often known as Foggy, is an English former motorcycle racer and one of the most successful World Superbike racers of all time. He also holds the second highest number of race wins at 59. He is the son of former motorcycle racer George Fogarty. In 2011, Fogarty was named a FIM Legend for his motorcycling achievements.
2. Garry Schofield, English rugby player and coach births
  1. Garry Schofield
    
    Garry Edward Schofield OBE is an English former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s and 1990s, and is a member of the British Rugby League Hall of Fame.
3. Harald Zwart, Norwegian director and producer births
  1. Harald Zwart
    
    Harald Zwart is a Dutch-Norwegian film director.
4. Wally Hammond, English cricketer (b. 1903) deaths
  1. Wally Hammond
    
    Walter Reginald Hammond was an English first-class cricketer who played for Gloucestershire in a career that lasted from 1920 to 1951. Beginning as a professional, he later became an amateur and was appointed captain of England. Primarily a middle-order batsman, Wisden Cricketers' Almanack described him in his obituary as one of the four best batsmen in the history of cricket. He was considered to be the best English batsman of the 1930s by commentators and those with whom he played; they also said that he was one of the best slip fielders ever. Hammond was an effective fast-medium pace bowler and contemporaries believed that if he had been less reluctant to bowl, he could have achieved even more with the ball than he did.
5. Robert Ruark, American journalist and author (b. 1915) deaths
  1. Robert Ruark
    
    Robert Ruark was an American author, syndicated columnist, and big game hunter.
1964
1. Bernard Laporte, French rugby player and coach births
  1. Bernard Laporte
    
    Bernard Laporte is a rugby player, coach and former French Secretary of State for Sport. From 1999 to 2007, Laporte was the head coach of the France national team. In 2011, he became the head coach at Toulon, after Philippe Saint-André became the new national team coach. He was previously the coach at Stade Français. He was the first fully professional head coach of France. On 3 December 2016, Bernard Laporte was elected president of the French Rugby Federation.
2. Pierre Monteux, French-American viola player and conductor (b. 1875) deaths
  1. Pierre Monteux
    
    Pierre Benjamin Monteux was a French conductor. After violin and viola studies, and a decade as an orchestral player and occasional conductor, he began to receive regular conducting engagements in 1907. He came to prominence when, for Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company between 1911 and 1914, he conducted the world premieres of Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring and other prominent works including Petrushka, The Nightingale, Ravel's Daphnis et Chloé, and Debussy's Jeux. Thereafter he directed orchestras around the world for more than half a century.
1963
1. Roddy Bottum, American singer and keyboard player births
  1. Roddy Bottum
    
    Roswell Christopher Bottum is an American musician, best known as the keyboardist for the San Francisco alternative metal band Faith No More. He is also guitarist and co-lead vocalist for the pop group Imperial Teen, best known for their 1999 single "Yoo Hoo" used in the movie Jawbreaker. In addition to popular musical career, Bottum also scored three Hollywood movies and composed an opera entitled Sasquatch: The Opera, which premiered in New York in April 2015.
2. Nick Giannopoulos, Australian actor births
  1. Nick Giannopoulos
    
    Nicholas Giannopoulos is an Australian stand-up comedian, film and TV actor and film director. He is best known for his comedy stage show Wogs Out of Work alongside George Kapiniaris, the television sitcom Acropolis Now and The Wog Boy film series and has been described as "Australia's leading exponent of "wog" humour".
3. David Wood, American lawyer and environmentalist (d. 2006) births
  1. David Wood (environmental campaigner)
    
    David E. Wood was an attorney and environmental activist. Best known for his work in the field of electronics recycling, he was executive director of the GrassRoots Recycling Network (GRRN) in Madison, Wisconsin and organizing director of the nationwide Computer TakeBack Campaign (CTBC).
1962
1. Andre Braugher, American actor and producer births
  1. Andre Braugher
    
    Andre Keith Braugher is an American actor. He is best known for his roles as Detective Frank Pembleton in the police drama series Homicide: Life on the Street (1993–1999), used car salesman Owen Thoreau Jr. in the comedy-drama series Men of a Certain Age (2009–2011), and Captain Raymond Holt in the police comedy series Brooklyn Nine-Nine (2013–2021).
2. Mokhzani Mahathir, Malaysian businessman births
  1. Mokhzani Mahathir
    
    Mokhzani bin Mahathir is a Malaysian businessman who has been listed as the 14th richest person in Malaysia. He worked as a petroleum engineer before founding oil-equipment fabricator Kencana Petroleum. Kencana Petroleum later merged with SapuraCrest to form SapuraKencana Petroleum. The company is now known as Sapura Energy.
3. Purushottam Das Tandon, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1882) deaths
  1. Purushottam Das Tandon
    
    Purushottam Das Tandon was a freedom fighter from Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. He is widely remembered for his opposition to the partition of India, as well as efforts in achieving the Official Language of India status for Hindi. He was customarily given the title Rajarshi. He was popularly known as UP Gandhi. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in 1961.
4. Bidhan Chandra Roy, Indian physician and politician, 2nd Chief Minister of West Bengal (b. 1882) deaths
  1. Bidhan Chandra Roy
    
    Bidhan Chandra Roy MRCP FRCS was an Indian physician, educationist, and statesman who served as Chief Minister of West Bengal from 1948 until his death in 1962. Roy played a key role in the founding of several institutions and the cities Bidhannagar and Kalyani. In India, the National Doctors' Day is celebrated in his memory every year on the 1st of July. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour in 1961.
  2. List of chief ministers of West Bengal
    
    The Chief Minister of West Bengal is the representative of the Government of India in the state of West Bengal and the head of the executive branch of the Government of West Bengal. The chief minister is head of the Council of Ministers and appoints ministers. The chief minister, along with their cabinet, exercises executive authority in the state. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly.
1961
1. Malcolm Elliott, English cyclist births
  1. Malcolm Elliott
    
    Malcolm Elliott is a former English professional cyclist, whose professional career has lasted from 1984 to 1997 when he retired and from 2003 up to 2011 when he made his comeback in British domestic racing.
2. Ivan Kaye, English actor births
  1. Ivan Kaye
    
    Ivan Blakeley Kaye is an English actor and producer. His international fame came with roles in historical drama shows like the Duke of Milan in all three seasons of The Borgias, and King Aelle in the first four Seasons of History channel's series Vikings. More recent projects include action thriller Gunpowder Milkshake, the series pilot for Amazon's adaptation of Stephen King's The Dark Tower, the first British original Disney+ series Wedding Season and a leading role in the Irish comedy feature film Apocalypse Clown. In the UK, he is also widely known for is role as Bryan in the comedy series The Green Green Grass.
3. Carl Lewis, American long jumper and runner births
  1. Carl Lewis
    
    Frederick Carlton Lewis is an American former track and field athlete who won nine Olympic gold medals, one Olympic silver medal, and 10 World Championships medals, including eight gold. His career spanned from 1979 to 1996, when he last won an Olympic event. He is one of only six Olympic athletes who won a gold medal in the same individual event in four consecutive Olympic Games.
4. Diana, Princess of Wales (d. 1997) births
  1. Diana, Princess of Wales
    
    Diana, Princess of Wales was a member of the British royal family. She was the first wife of King Charles III and mother of Princes William and Harry. Her activism and glamour made her an international icon and earned her enduring popularity as well as almost unprecedented public scrutiny.
5. Michelle Wright, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist births
  1. Michelle Wright
    
    Michelle Wright is a Canadian country music artist. She is one of the country's most widely recognized and awarded female country singers of the 1990s, winning the Canadian Country Music Association's Fans' Choice Award twice. In 2011, Wright was inducted into the Canadian Country Music Hall of Fame.
6. Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French physician and author (b. 1894) deaths
  1. Louis-Ferdinand Céline
    
    Louis Ferdinand Auguste Destouches, better known by the pen name Louis-Ferdinand Céline was a French novelist, polemicist and physician. His first novel Journey to the End of the Night (1932) won the Prix Renaudot but divided critics due to the author's pessimistic depiction of the human condition and his writing style based on working class speech. In subsequent novels such as Death on the Installment Plan (1936), Guignol's Band (1944) and Castle to Castle (1957) Céline further developed an innovative and distinctive literary style. Maurice Nadeau wrote: "What Joyce did for the English language…what the surrealists attempted to do for the French language, Céline achieved effortlessly and on a vast scale."
1960
1. Michael Beattie, Australian rugby league player and coach births
  1. Michael Beattie
    
    Michael Beattie is an Australian former professional rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s and 1990s. He played at club level for the St. George Dragons (captain) and Castleford.
2. Lynn Jennings, American runner births
  1. Lynn Jennings
    
    Lynn Alice Jennings is a retired American long-distance runner. She is one of the best female American runners of all time, with a range from 1500 meters to the marathon. She excelled at all three of the sport's major disciplines: track, road, and cross country. She won the bronze in the Women's 10,000 metres at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. She set a world indoor record in the 5000 meter run in 1990.
3. Evelyn "Champagne" King, American soul/disco singer births
  1. Evelyn "Champagne" King
    
    Evelyn "Champagne" King is an American singer, songwriter, and record producer. She is best known for her hit disco single "Shame", which was released in 1977 during the height of disco's popularity. King had other hits from the early through the mid–1980s including; "I'm in Love" (1981), "Love Come Down" (1982) and "Your Personal Touch" (1985).
4. Kevin Swords, American rugby player births
  1. Kevin Swords
    
    Kevin Robert Swords is a former USA international rugby player. The 6’7", 260 lb, lock, Sports Illustrated Athlete of the Month, who at the time of his retirement was the most-capped US Eagle in history, won 36 caps between 1985 and 1994 and was tapped to play for the world-renowned Barbarians. His 6'10" brother Brian Swords also played for the Eagles as a lock. Brian, a much revered competitor and teammate introduced Kevin to Rugby while they both attended the College of the Holy Cross. Kevin Swords is the nephew of former president of the College of the Holy Cross, Rev. Raymond J. Swords, S. J., and the uncle of Carolyn Swords.
1958
1. Jack Dyer Crouch II, American diplomat, United States Deputy National Security Advisor births
  1. Jack Dyer Crouch II
    
    Jack Dyer Crouch II is an American diplomat and national security adviser. Since 2014, he has been president and chief executive officer (CEO) of the United Service Organizations (USO).
  2. Deputy National Security Advisor
    
    The United States Deputy National Security Advisor is a member of the Executive Office of the President of the United States and the United States National Security Council, serving under the President's National Security Advisor.
1957
1. Lisa Blount, American actress and producer (d. 2010) births
  1. Lisa Blount
    
    Lisa Suzanne Blount was an American film and television actress, and Academy Award-winning producer.
2. Hannu Kamppuri, Finnish ice hockey player births
  1. Hannu Kamppuri
    
    Hannu Juhani Kamppuri is a former professional ice hockey goaltender. Kamppuri was an accomplished SM-liiga goaltender, where he played from 1975 to 1990, and was one of the first Finnish goaltenders to compete in the National Hockey League, where he played 13 games for the New Jersey Devils during the 1984–85 season. He also appeared in net for the Edmonton Oilers of the World Hockey Association for 2 games during the 1978–79 season.
3. Sean O'Driscoll, English footballer and manager births
  1. Sean O'Driscoll
    
    Sean Michael O'Driscoll is a former professional footballer and manager. He has previously managed AFC Bournemouth, Doncaster Rovers, Crawley Town, Nottingham Forest, Bristol City and Walsall. He was known by the nickname "Noisy" in his playing days at Fulham. He represented the Republic of Ireland as a player.
1955
1. Nikolai Demidenko, Russian pianist and educator births
  1. Nikolai Demidenko
    
    Nikolai Demidenko is a Russian-born classical pianist.
2. Li Keqiang, Chinese economist and politician, 7th Premier of the People's Republic of China births
  1. Li Keqiang
    
    Li Keqiang is a Chinese politician who is the outgoing premier of China. An economist by profession, Li is head of China's executive branch as well as one of the leading figures behind China's Financial and Economic Affairs, Foreign Affairs, National Security and Deepening Reforms. He was also the second-ranked member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the de facto top decision-making body of the country from 2012 to 2022. Li is a major part of the "fifth generation of Chinese leadership" along with Xi Jinping, the CCP general secretary.
  2. Premier of the People's Republic of China
    
    The premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, commonly called the premier of China and sometimes also referred to as the prime minister, is the head of government of China and leader of the State Council. The premier is nominally the second most powerful position in China's political system, under the general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, and holds the highest rank in the civil service of the central government.
3. Lisa Scottoline, American lawyer and author births
  1. Lisa Scottoline
    
    Lisa Scottoline is an American author of legal thrillers.
4. Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi, Tongan politician and military officer, Deputy Prime Minister (d. 2021) births
  1. Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi
    
    Siosaʻia Lausiʻi, Lord Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi, also known as Lord Maʻafu, was a Tongan politician, military officer, and member of the Tongan nobility.
1954
1. Keith Whitley, American singer and guitarist (d. 1989) births
  1. Keith Whitley
    
    Jackie Keith Whitley was an American country music singer and songwriter. During his career, Whitley released only two albums but charted 12 singles on the Billboard country charts, and 7 more after his death.
2. Hossein Nuri, Iranian artist and director births
  1. Hossein Nuri
    
    Hossein Nuri is an Iranian painter, playwright and film director. One of Nuri's pre-eminent characteristics is that despite his physical limitations he has gained professional acclaim in three fields of painting, theater, and cinema.
1953
1. Lawrence Gonzi, Maltese lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Malta births
  1. Lawrence Gonzi
    
    Lawrence Gonzi, is a Maltese politician, retired Nationalist politician and lawyer, who served for twenty-five years in various critical roles in Maltese politics. Gonzi was Prime Minister of Malta from 2004 to 2013, and leader of the Nationalist Party. He also served as speaker of the House from 1988 to 1996, and Minister of Social Policy from 1998 to 2004, as well as Deputy Prime Minister from 1999 to 2004. He served in practically all positions in Parliament, being also Leader of the House, an MP and Leader of the Opposition.
  2. Prime Minister of Malta
    
    The prime minister of Malta is the head of government, which is the highest official of Malta. The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings, and selects its ministers to serve in their respective portfolios. The Prime Minister holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the Parliament, as such they sit as Members of Parliament.
2. Jadranka Kosor, Croatian journalist and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Croatia births
  1. Jadranka Kosor
    
    Jadranka Kosor is a Croatian politician and former journalist who served as Prime Minister of Croatia from 2009 to 2011, having taken office following the sudden resignation of her predecessor Ivo Sanader. Kosor was the first and so far only woman to become Prime Minister of Croatia since independence.
  2. Prime Minister of Croatia
    
    The prime minister of Croatia, officially the President of the Government of the Republic of Croatia, is Croatia's head of government, and is de facto the most powerful and influential state officeholder in the Croatian system of government. Following the first-time establishment of the office in 1945, the 1990–2000 semi-presidential period is the only exception where the president of Croatia held de facto executive authority. In the formal Croatian order of precedence, however, the position of prime minister is the third highest state office, after the president of the Republic and the speaker of the Parliament.
1952
1. Dan Aykroyd, Canadian actor, producer and screenwriter births
  1. Dan Aykroyd
    
    Daniel Edward Aykroyd is a Canadian actor, comedian, producer, musician and writer. He was an original member of the "Not Ready for Prime Time Players" on Saturday Night Live (1975–1979). During his tenure on SNL, Aykroyd appeared in a recurring series of sketches about the Coneheads, and the Blues Brothers. For his work on the show he received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations winning for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series in 1977. After his departure, he has since returned in guest roles.
2. David Arkenstone, American composer and performer births
  1. David Arkenstone
    
    David Arkenstone is an American composer and performer. His music is primarily instrumental, with occasional vocalizations. Most of Arkenstone's music falls into new age category; however, he also worked in other genres, including even a heavy metal soundtrack for Emperor: Battle for Dune video game. His music has been described as 'soundtracks for the imagination'. Throughout his career, Arkenstone released over 50 albums and composed music for video games, including World of Warcraft, and for television, including NBC's Kentucky Derby. Arkenstone has been nominated for Grammy Awards five times.
3. David Lane, English oncologist and academic births
  1. David Lane (oncologist)
    
    Sir David Philip Lane is a British immunologist, molecular biologist and cancer researcher. He is currently working in the Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology at the Karolinska Institute and is Chairman of Chugai Pharmabody. He is best known for the discovery of p53, one of the most important tumour suppressor genes.
4. Steve Shutt, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster births
  1. Steve Shutt
    
    Stephen John Shutt is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player and NHL Hall of Famer who played 13 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL), 12 seasons for the Montreal Canadiens and 1 season for the Los Angeles Kings. He is in the Hockey Hall of Fame. While playing for the Canadiens he captured 5 Stanley Cups in 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978, and 1979.
5. Timothy J. Tobias, American pianist and composer (d. 2006) births
  1. Timothy J. Tobias
    
    Timothy John Tobias was an American composer and musician.
1951
1. Trevor Eve, English actor and producer births
  1. Trevor Eve
    
    Trevor John Eve is an English film and television actor. In 1979 he gained fame as the eponymous lead in the detective series Shoestring and is also known for his role as Detective Superintendent Peter Boyd in BBC television drama Waking the Dead. He is the father of three children, including actress Alice Eve.
2. Anne Feeney, American singer-songwriter and activist (d. 2021) births
  1. Anne Feeney
    
    Anne Feeney was an American folk musician, singer-songwriter, political activist and attorney. She began her career in 1969 as a student activist playing a Phil Ochs song at a Vietnam War protest, one of many causes she embraced.
3. Julia Goodfellow, English physicist and academic births
  1. Julia Goodfellow
    
    Dame Julia Mary Goodfellow is a former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Kent, and Chair of the British Science Association. She was the president of Universities UK from 1 August 2015 until July 2017.
4. Klaus-Peter Justus, German runner births
  1. Klaus-Peter Justus
    
    Klaus-Peter Justus is a retired East German middle distance runner who specialized in the 1500 metres.
5. Tom Kozelko, American basketball player births
  1. Tom Kozelko
    
    Thomas William Kozelko is a retired American basketball player who played briefly in the National Basketball Association (NBA).
6. Terrence Mann, American actor, singer and dancer births
  1. Terrence Mann
    
    Terrence Mann is an American theatre, film and television actor. He is best known for his appearances on the Broadway stage, which include Chester Lyman in Barnum, Rum Tum Tugger in Cats, Javert in Les Miserables, Beast in Beauty and the Beast, Chauvelin in The Scarlet Pimpernel, Charles in Pippin, Mal Beineke in The Addams Family, and The Man in the Yellow Suit in Tuck Everlasting.
7. Fred Schneider, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player births
  1. Fred Schneider
    
    Frederick William Schneider III is an American singer, songwriter, arranger, and musician, best known as the frontman of the rock band The B-52's, of which he is a founding member.
8. Victor Willis, American singer-songwriter, pianist and actor births
  1. Victor Willis
    
    Victor Edward Willis is an American singer, songwriter, and actor. He is the founding member of the disco group Village People. He performed as their lead singer and was co-songwriter for all of their most successful singles. In the group, he performed costumed as a policeman or a naval officer.
9. Tadeusz Borowski, Polish poet, novelist and journalist (b. 1922) deaths
  1. Tadeusz Borowski
    
    Tadeusz Borowski was a Polish writer and journalist. His wartime poetry and stories dealing with his experiences as a prisoner at Auschwitz are recognized as classics of Polish literature.
1950
1. David Duke, American white supremacist, politician and Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard births
  1. David Duke
    
    David Ernest Duke is an American white supremacist, antisemitic conspiracy theorist, far-right politician, convicted felon, and former Grand Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. From 1989 to 1992, he was a member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for the Republican Party. His politics and writings are largely devoted to promoting conspiracy theories about Jews, such as Holocaust denial and Jewish control of academia, the press, and the financial system. The Anti-Defamation League described Duke in 2013 as promoting white supremacist views and "perhaps America’s most well-known racist and anti-Semite".
  2. Ku Klux Klan
    
    The Ku Klux Klan, commonly shortened to the KKK or the Klan, is an American white supremacist, right-wing terrorist, and hate group whose primary targets are African Americans, Jews, Latinos, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Catholics, as well as immigrants, leftists, homosexuals, Muslims, abortion providers and atheists.
  3. Grand Wizard
    
    The Grand Wizard was the head of the Reconstruction-era Ku Klux Klan which was founded in 1865. The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, founded in 1915, styled their highest-ranking leader the Imperial Wizard. National officers were styled "Imperial" officers. State or "Realm" officers were styled "Grand" officers. For example, a "Grand Dragon" was the highest-ranking Klansman in a given state.
2. Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Swiss composer and educator (b. 1865) deaths
  1. Émile Jaques-Dalcroze
    
    Émile Jaques-Dalcroze was a Swiss composer, musician, and music educator who developed Dalcroze eurhythmics, an approach to learning and experiencing music through movement. Dalcroze eurhythmics influenced Carl Orff's pedagogy, used in music education throughout the United States.
3. Eliel Saarinen, Finnish-American architect, co-designed the National Museum of Finland (b. 1873) deaths
  1. Eliel Saarinen
    
    Gottlieb Eliel Saarinen was a Finnish-American architect known for his work with art nouveau buildings in the early years of the 20th century. He was also the father of famed architect Eero Saarinen.
  2. National Museum of Finland
    
    The National Museum of Finland presents Finnish history from the Stone Age to the present day, through objects and cultural history. The Finnish National Romantic style building is located in central Helsinki and is a part of the Finnish Heritage Agency, under the Ministry of Culture and Education.
1949
1. Néjia Ben Mabrouk, Tunisian-Belgian director and screenwriter births
  1. Néjia Ben Mabrouk
    
    Néjia Ben Mabrouk is a Tunisian screenwriter and director, known for her work on the award-winning film Sama and on the documentary The Gulf War... What Next?.
2. John Farnham, English-Australian singer-songwriter births
  1. John Farnham
    
    John Peter Farnham AO is a British-born Australian singer. Farnham was a teen pop idol from 1967 until 1979, billed then as Johnny Farnham, but has since forged a career as an adult contemporary singer. His career has mostly been as a solo artist, although he replaced Glenn Shorrock as lead singer of Little River Band from 1982 to 1985.
3. David Hogan, American composer and educator (d. 1996) births
  1. David Hogan (composer)
    
    H. David Hogan was an American composer and musical director of CIGAP, a choir composed of openly gay men.
4. Venkaiah Naidu, Indian lawyer and politician births
  1. Venkaiah Naidu
    
    Muppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu is an Indian politician who served as the 13th vice president of India from 2017 to 2022. He is the first Indian vice president born in independent India. He has also served as the minister of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Urban Development and Information and Broadcasting in the Modi Cabinet.
1948
1. John Ford, English-American singer-songwriter and guitarist births
  1. John Ford (musician)
    
    John Ford is an English musician. He relocated to the United States in the mid-1980s and now resides on the North Shore of Long Island, New York.
2. Achille Varzi, Italian race car driver (b. 1904) deaths
  1. Achille Varzi
    
    Achille Varzi was an Italian Grand Prix driver.
1947
1. Kazuyoshi Hoshino, Japanese race car driver births
  1. Kazuyoshi Hoshino
    
    Kazuyoshi Hoshino is a Japanese former racing driver and businessman.
2. Malcolm Wicks, English academic and politician (d. 2012) births
  1. Malcolm Wicks
    
    Malcolm Hunt Wicks was a British Labour Party politician and academic specialising in social policy. He was a member of parliament (MP) from 1992, first for Croydon North West and then for Croydon North, until his death in 2012.
1946
1. Mick Aston, English archaeologist and academic (d. 2013) births
  1. Mick Aston
    
    Michael Antony Aston was an English archaeologist who specialised in Early Medieval landscape archaeology. Over the course of his career, he lectured at both the University of Bristol and University of Oxford and published fifteen books on archaeological subjects. A keen populariser of the discipline, Aston was widely known for appearing as the resident academic on the Channel 4 television series Time Team from 1994 to 2011.
2. Erkki Tuomioja, Finnish sergeant and politician, Finnish Minister for Foreign Affairs births
  1. Erkki Tuomioja
    
    Erkki Sakari Tuomioja is a Finnish politician and a member of the Finnish Parliament. From 2000 to 2007 and 2011 to 2015, he served as the minister for foreign affairs. He was president of the Nordic Council in 2008.
  2. Minister for Foreign Affairs (Finland)
    
    The minister for foreign affairs handles the Finnish Government's foreign policy and relations, and is in charge of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. The minister for foreign trade and development is also associated with this ministry.
3. Kojo Laing, Ghanaian novelist and poet (d. 2017) births
  1. Kojo Laing
    
    B. Kojo Laing or Bernard Kojo Laing was a Ghanaian novelist and poet, whose writing is characterised by its hybridity, whereby he uses Ghanaian Pidgin English and vernacular languages alongside standard English. His first two novels in particular – Search Sweet Country (1986) and Woman of the Aeroplanes (1988) – were praised for their linguistic originality, both books including glossaries that feature the author's neologisms as well as Ghanaian words.
1945
1. Mike Burstyn, American actor and singer births
  1. Mike Burstyn
    
    Michael Burstein is an Israeli-American actor known onstage as Mike Burstyn. He was born in New York City to the late Yiddish-language actors, Pesach Burstein and Lillian Lux. His first cousin was Borsch Belt comedian, Jay Lester. Mike began performing on stage at Yiddish theaters from childhood, in musicals and melodramas produced by his father, Pesach Burstein, especially as part of the Four Bursteins. in standard Pesach Burstein productions like A Khasene in Shtetl. He headed out on his own after reaching adulthood, in a bid to reach audiences bigger than the Yiddish stage.
2. Debbie Harry, American singer-songwriter and actress births
  1. Debbie Harry
    
    Deborah Ann Harry is an American singer, songwriter and actress, best known as the lead vocalist of the band Blondie. Four of her songs with the band reached No. 1 on the US charts between 1979 and 1981.
1944
1. Nurul Haque Miah, Bangladeshi professor and writer (d. 2021) births
  1. Nurul Haque Miah
    
    Muhammad Nurul Haque Miah was a professor at Dhaka College and the head of its Department of Chemistry. He is renowned for writing high school and degree textbooks.
2. Carl Mayer, Austrian-English screenwriter (b. 1894) deaths
  1. Carl Mayer
    
    Carl Mayer was an Austrian screenwriter who wrote or co-wrote the screenplays to The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), The Head of Janus (1920), The Haunted Castle (1921), Der Letzte Mann (1924), Tartuffe (1926), Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans (1927), and 4 Devils (1928), most of them being films directed by F. W. Murnau. Mayer was a fundamental figure in the dramatic and narrative establishment of both German expressionist cinema and Kammerspielfilm.
3. Tanya Savicheva, Russian author (b. 1930) deaths
  1. Tanya Savicheva
    
    Tatyana Nikolayevna Savicheva, commonly referred to as Tanya Savicheva, was a Russian child diarist who endured the siege of Leningrad during World War II. During the siege, Savicheva recorded the successive deaths of each member of her family in her diary, with her final entry indicating her belief to be the sole living family member. Although Savicheva was rescued and transferred to a hospital, she succumbed to intestinal tuberculosis in July 1944 at age 14.
1943
1. Philip Brunelle, American conductor and organist births
  1. Philip Brunelle
    
    Philip Brunelle is an American choral scholar, conductor and organist. He is the founder of VocalEssence. In the course of an international career as a choral and opera conductor Brunelle has been awarded Commander of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit and made an Honorary Member of the Order of the British Empire as well as receiving Hungary's Kodály Medal, the Ohtli medal from Mexico, and Sweden's Royal Order of the Polar Star. He has received honorary doctoral degrees from Gustavus Adolphus College, St. John's University, St. Olaf College, United Theological Seminary, and the University of Minnesota.
2. Peeter Lepp, Estonian politician, 37th Mayor of Tallinn births
  1. Peeter Lepp
    
    Peeter Lepp is an Estonian politician. From 1993 to 2002, he was a member of the Estonian Coalition Party. After its dissolution, he joined the Estonian Reform Party.
  2. List of mayors of Tallinn
    
    The following is a list of Mayors of Tallinn, Estonia.
3. Jeff Wayne, American composer, musician and lyricist births
  1. Jeff Wayne
    
    Jeffry Wayne is an American-British composer, musician and lyricist. In 1978, he released Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds, his musical adaptation of H. G. Wells' science-fiction novel The War of the Worlds. Wayne wrote approximately 3,000 advertising jingles in the 1970s which appeared on television in the United Kingdom, including a Gordon's Gin commercial which was covered by The Human League. Wayne also composed numerous television themes, including Good Morning Britain (TV-am), ITV's The Big Match and World of Sport, BBC's Sixty Minutes, and for 24 years, the UK's first news radio station, LBC.
4. Willem Arondeus, Dutch artist, author and anti-Nazi resistance fighter (b. 1894) deaths
  1. Willem Arondeus
    
    Willem Arondeus was a Dutch artist and author who joined the Dutch anti-Nazi resistance movement during World War II. He participated in the bombing of the Amsterdam public records office to hinder the Nazi German effort to identify Dutch Jews and others wanted by the Gestapo. Arondeus was caught and executed soon after his arrest. Yad Vashem recognized Arondeus as Righteous Among the Nations.
1942
1. Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, Iraqi field marshal and politician (d. 2020) births
  1. Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri
    
    Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri was an Iraqi politician and Army Field Marshal. He served as Vice Chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council until the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq and was regarded as the closest advisor and deputy under President Saddam Hussein. He led the Iraqi insurgent Naqshbandi Army.
2. Geneviève Bujold, Canadian actress births
  1. Geneviève Bujold
    
    Geneviève Bujold is a Canadian actress. For her portrayal of Anne Boleyn in the period drama film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), Bujold received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Her other film credits include The Trojan Women (1971), Earthquake (1974), Obsession (1976), Coma (1978), Murder by Decree (1979), Tightrope (1984), Choose Me (1984), Dead Ringers (1988), The House of Yes (1997), and Still Mine (2012).
3. Andraé Crouch, American singer-songwriter, producer and pastor (d. 2015) births
  1. Andraé Crouch
    
    Andraé Edward Crouch was an American gospel singer, songwriter, arranger, record producer and pastor. Referred to as "the father of modern gospel music" by contemporary Christian and gospel music professionals, Crouch was known for his compositions "The Blood Will Never Lose Its Power", "My Tribute " and "Soon and Very Soon". He collaborated on some of his recordings with famous and popular artists such as Stevie Wonder, El DeBarge, Philip Bailey, Chaka Khan, and Sheila E., as well as the vocal group Take 6, and many popular artists covered his material, including Bob Dylan, Barbara Mandrell, Paul Simon, Elvis Presley and Little Richard. In the 1980s and 1990s, he was known as the "go-to" producer for superstars who sought a gospel choir sound in their recordings; he appeared on a number of recordings, including Michael Jackson's "Man In the Mirror", Madonna's "Like a Prayer", and "The Power", a duet between Elton John and Little Richard. Crouch was noted for his talent of incorporating contemporary secular music styles into the gospel music he grew up with. His efforts in this area helped pave the way for early American contemporary Christian music during the 1960s and 1970s.
4. Julia Higgins, English chemist and academic births
  1. Julia Higgins
    
    Dame Julia Stretton Higgins is a British polymer scientist. Since 1976 she has been based at the Department of Chemical Engineering at Imperial College London, where she is emeritus professor and Senior Research Investigator.
5. Peadar Toner Mac Fhionnlaoich, Irish writer (b. 1857) deaths
  1. Peadar Toner Mac Fhionnlaoich
    
    Peadar Toner Mac Fhionnlaoich, known as Cú Uladh, was an Irish language writer during the Gaelic revival. He wrote stories based on Irish folklore, some of the first Irish language plays, and regularly wrote articles in most of the Irish language newspapers such as An Claidheamh Soluis
1941
1. Rod Gilbert, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2021) births
  1. Rod Gilbert
    
    Rodrigue Gabriel Gilbert was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward who played his entire career for the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Known as "Mr. Ranger", he played right wing on the GAG line with Vic Hadfield and Jean Ratelle but never with a Stanley Cup championship team. He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1982, and was the first player in Rangers history to have his number retired. After his playing career, he became president of the Rangers' alumni association.
2. Alfred G. Gilman, American pharmacologist and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015) births
  1. Alfred G. Gilman
    
    Alfred Goodman Gilman was an American pharmacologist and biochemist. He and Martin Rodbell shared the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells."
  2. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
    
    The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded yearly by the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute for outstanding discoveries in physiology or medicine. The Nobel Prize is not a single prize, but five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's 1895 will, are awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind". Nobel Prizes are awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace.
3. Myron Scholes, Canadian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate births
  1. Myron Scholes
    
    Myron Samuel Scholes is a Canadian-American financial economist. Scholes is the Frank E. Buck Professor of Finance, Emeritus, at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, Nobel Laureate in Economic Sciences, and co-originator of the Black–Scholes options pricing model. Scholes is currently the chairman of the Board of Economic Advisers of Stamos Capital Partners. Previously he served as the chairman of Platinum Grove Asset Management and on the Dimensional Fund Advisors board of directors, American Century Mutual Fund board of directors and the Cutwater Advisory Board. He was a principal and limited partner at Long-Term Capital Management and a managing director at Salomon Brothers. Other positions Scholes held include the Edward Eagle Brown Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago, senior research fellow at the Hoover Institution, director of the Center for Research in Security Prices, and professor of finance at MIT's Sloan School of Management. Scholes earned his PhD at the University of Chicago.
  2. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
    
    The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, is an economics award administered by the Nobel Foundation.
4. Twyla Tharp, American dancer and choreographer births
  1. Twyla Tharp
    
    Twyla Tharp is an American dancer, choreographer, and author who lives and works in New York City. In 1966 she formed the company Twyla Tharp Dance. Her work often uses classical music, jazz, and contemporary pop music.
1940
1. Craig Brown, Scottish footballer and manager births
  1. Craig Brown (footballer, born 1940)
    
    James Craig Brown is a Scottish former professional football player and manager. After his playing career with Rangers, Dundee and Falkirk was curtailed by a series of knee injuries, Brown entered management with Clyde in 1977. Brown then coached various Scotland youth teams until he was appointed Scotland manager in 1993. He held this position until 2001, the longest tenure for a Scotland manager, and they qualified for the UEFA Euro 1996 and 1998 FIFA World Cup tournaments. Brown later managed Preston North End, Motherwell and Aberdeen. He retired from management in 2013 and was appointed a non-executive director of Aberdeen. Brown was awarded the CBE in 1999 for services to football.
2. Ela Gandhi, South African activist and politician births
  1. Ela Gandhi
    
    Ela Gandhi, is a South African peace activist and former politician. She served as a Member of Parliament in South Africa from 1994 to 2004, where she aligned with the African National Congress (ANC) party representing the Phoenix area of Inanda in the KwaZulu-Natal province. Her parliamentary committee assignments included the Welfare, and Public Enterprises committees as well as the ad hoc committee on Surrogate Motherhood. She was an alternate member of the Justice Committee and served on Theme Committee 5 on Judiciary and Legal Systems. She is the granddaughter of Mahatma Gandhi.
3. Cahit Zarifoğlu, Turkish poet and author (d. 1987) births
  1. Cahit Zarifoğlu
    
    Abdurrahman Cahit Zarifoğlu was a Turkish poet and writer.
1939
1. Karen Black, American actress (d. 2013) births
  1. Karen Black
    
    Karen Blanche Black was an American actress, screenwriter, singer, and songwriter. She rose to prominence for her work in various studio and independent films in the 1970s, frequently portraying eccentric and offbeat characters, and established herself as a figure of New Hollywood. Her career spanned over 50 years and includes nearly 200 credits in both independent and mainstream films. Black received numerous accolades throughout her career, including two Golden Globe Awards, as well as an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
2. Delaney Bramlett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer (d. 2008) births
  1. Delaney Bramlett
    
    Delaine Alvin "Delaney" Bramlett was an American singer and guitarist. He was best known for his musical partnership with his wife Bonnie Bramlett in the band Delaney & Bonnie and Friends, which included a wide variety of other musicians, many of whom were successful in other contexts.
1938
1. Craig Anderson, American baseball player and coach births
  1. Craig Anderson (1960s pitcher)
    
    Norman Craig Anderson is an American former professional baseball pitcher, who played Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals and New York Mets for all or parts of four seasons (1961–1964). A native of Washington, D.C., he threw and batted right-handed and was listed as 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) tall and 205 pounds (93 kg).
2. Hariprasad Chaurasia, Indian flute player and composer births
  1. Hariprasad Chaurasia
    
    Hariprasad Chaurasia is an Indian film music director and classical flautist, who plays the BANSURI, in the Hindustani classical tradition.
1936
1. Wally Amos, American entrepreneur, founder of Famous Amos births
  1. Wally Amos
    
    Wallace "Wally" Amos, Jr. is an American television personality, entrepreneur, and author from Tallahassee, Florida. He is the founder of the Famous Amos chocolate-chip cookie, the Cookie Kahuna, and Aunt Della's Cookies gourmet cookie brands, and he was the host of the adult reading program, Learn to Read.
  2. Famous Amos
    
    Famous Amos is a brand of cookies founded in Los Angeles in 1975 by Wally Amos, a former talent agent with William Morris Agency.
1935
1. James Cotton, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 2017) births
  1. James Cotton
    
    James Henry Cotton was an American blues harmonica player, singer and songwriter, who performed and recorded with many of the other great blues artists of his time and with his own band. He played drums early in his career but is famous for his harmonica playing.
2. David Prowse, English actor (d. 2020) births
  1. David Prowse
    
    David Charles Prowse was an English actor, bodybuilder and weightlifter. He portrayed Darth Vader in the original Star Wars trilogy and a manservant in Stanley Kubrick's 1971 film A Clockwork Orange. In 2015, he starred in two documentaries concerning his Darth Vader role, one entitled The Force's Mouth which included Prowse voicing Darth Vader's lines with studio effects applied for the first time, and the other entitled I Am Your Father covering the subject of fallout between Prowse and Lucasfilm.
1934
1. Claude Berri, French actor, director and screenwriter (d. 2009) births
  1. Claude Berri
    
    Claude Berri was a French film director, writer, producer, actor and distributor.
2. Jamie Farr, American actor births
  1. Jamie Farr
    
    Jamie Farr is an American comedian and actor. He is best known for playing the cross-dressing Corporal turned Sergeant Maxwell Q. Klinger in the CBS television sitcom M*A*S*H.
3. Jean Marsh, English actress and screenwriter births
  1. Jean Marsh
    
    Jean Lyndsey Torren Marsh is an English actress and writer. She co-created and starred in the ITV series Upstairs, Downstairs (1971–75), for which she won the 1975 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance as Rose Buck. She later reprised the role in the BBC's revival of the series (2010–2012).
4. Sydney Pollack, American actor, director and producer (d. 2008) births
  1. Sydney Pollack
    
    Sydney Irwin Pollack was an American film director, producer and actor. Pollack directed more than 20 films and 10 television shows, acted in over 30 movies or shows and produced over 44 films. For his film Out of Africa (1985), Pollack won the Academy Award for Best Director and Best Picture. He was also nominated for Best Director Oscars for They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (1969) and Tootsie (1982).
5. Ernst Röhm, German paramilitary commander (b. 1887) deaths
  1. Ernst Röhm
    
    Ernst Julius Günther Röhm was a German military officer and an early member of the Nazi Party. As one of the members of its predecessor, the German Workers' Party, he was a close friend and early ally of Adolf Hitler and a co-founder of the Sturmabteilung, the Nazi Party's militia, and later was its commander. By 1934, the German Army feared the SA's influence and Hitler had come to see Röhm as a potential rival, so he was executed during the Night of the Long Knives.
1933
1. C. Scott Littleton, American anthropologist and academic (d. 2010) births
  1. C. Scott Littleton
    
    Covington Scott Littleton was an American anthropologist who was Professor and Chair of the Department of Anthropology at Occidental College. A co-founder of the Journal of Indo-European Studies, Littleton was an expert on Indo-European mythology and Shinto, on which he was the author of numerous works.
1932
1. Ze'ev Schiff, French-Israeli journalist and author (d. 2007) births
  1. Ze'ev Schiff
    
    Ze'ev Schiff was an Israeli journalist and military correspondent for Haaretz.
1931
1. Leslie Caron, French actress and dancer births
  1. Leslie Caron
    
    Leslie Claire Margaret Caron is a French-American actress and dancer. She is the recipient of a Golden Globe Award, two BAFTA Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award, in addition to nominations for two Academy Awards. She is one of the last surviving stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.
1930
1. Moustapha Akkad, Syrian-American director and producer (d. 2005) births
  1. Moustapha Akkad
    
    Moustapha Al Akkad was a Syrian-American film producer and director, best known for producing the original series of Halloween films and directing The Message and Lion of the Desert. He was killed along with his daughter Rima Al Akkad Monla in the 2005 Amman bombings.
2. Carol Chomsky, American linguist and academic (d. 2008) births
  1. Carol Chomsky
    
    Carol Doris Chomsky was an American linguist and education specialist who studied language acquisition in children.
1929
1. Gerald Edelman, American biologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014) births
  1. Gerald Edelman
    
    Gerald Maurice Edelman was an American biologist who shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work with Rodney Robert Porter on the immune system. Edelman's Nobel Prize-winning research concerned discovery of the structure of antibody molecules. In interviews, he has said that the way the components of the immune system evolve over the life of the individual is analogous to the way the components of the brain evolve in a lifetime. There is a continuity in this way between his work on the immune system, for which he won the Nobel Prize, and his later work in neuroscience and in philosophy of mind.
  2. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
    
    The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded yearly by the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute for outstanding discoveries in physiology or medicine. The Nobel Prize is not a single prize, but five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's 1895 will, are awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind". Nobel Prizes are awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace.
1927
1. Alan J. Charig, English paleontologist and author (d. 1997) births
  1. Alan J. Charig
    
    Alan Jack Charig was an English palaeontologist and writer who popularised his subject on television and in books at the start of the wave of interest in dinosaurs in the 1970s.
2. Winfield Dunn, American politician, 43rd Governor of Tennessee births
  1. Winfield Dunn
    
    Bryant Winfield Culberson Dunn is an American businessman and politician who served as the 43rd governor of Tennessee from 1971 to 1975. He was the state's first Republican governor in fifty years. Dunn was an unsuccessful candidate for a second term in 1986, losing to Democrat Ned McWherter. He has remained active in the Republican Party and the medical field since the end of his term as governor.
  2. Governor of Tennessee
    
    The governor of Tennessee is the head of government of the U.S. state of Tennessee. The governor is the only official in Tennessee state government who is directly elected by the voters of the entire state.
3. Joseph Martin Sartoris, American bishop births
  1. Joseph Martin Sartoris
    
    Joseph Martin Sartoris is an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. Sartoris served as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles in California from 1994 to 2002.
4. Chandra Shekhar, 8th Prime Minister of India (d. 2007) births
  1. Chandra Shekhar
    
    Chandra Shekhar Singh Solanki was an Indian politician who served as the 8th Prime Minister of India, between 10 November 1990 and 21 June 1991. He headed a minority government of a breakaway faction of the Janata Dal with outside support from the Indian National Congress. He was the first Indian Prime Minister who had never held any prior government office.
1926
1. Robert Fogel, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) births
  1. Robert Fogel
    
    Robert William Fogel was an American economic historian and scientist, and winner of the 1993 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. As of his death, he was the Charles R. Walgreen Distinguished Service Professor of American Institutions and director of the Center for Population Economics (CPE) at the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business. He is best known as an advocate of new economic history (cliometrics) – the use of quantitative methods in history.
  2. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
    
    The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, is an economics award administered by the Nobel Foundation.
2. Carl Hahn, German businessman births
  1. Carl Hahn
    
    Carl Horst Hahn is a German businessman and former head of the Volkswagen Group from 1982 to 1993. He served as the chairman of the board of management of the parent company, Volkswagen AG. During his tenure, the group's car production increased from two million units in 1982 to 3.5 million a decade later.
3. Mohamed Abshir Muse, Somali general (d. 2017) births
  1. Mohamed Abshir Muse
    
    Mohamed Abshir Muse ; July 01, 1926 — October 25, 2017 also known as Mahamed Abshir Haamaan, was a prominent Somali General and the first Commander of the Somali Police Force.
4. Hans Werner Henze, German composer and educator (d. 2012) births
  1. Hans Werner Henze
    
    Hans Werner Henze was a German composer. His large oeuvre of works is extremely varied in style, having been influenced by serialism, atonality, Stravinsky, Italian music, Arabic music and jazz, as well as traditional schools of German composition. In particular, his stage works reflect "his consistent cultivation of music for the theatre throughout his life".
1925
1. Farley Granger, American actor (d. 2011) births
  1. Farley Granger
    
    Farley Earle Granger Jr. was an American actor, best known for his two collaborations with director Alfred Hitchcock: Rope in 1948 and Strangers on a Train in 1951.
2. Art McNally, American football referee births
  1. Art McNally
    
    Arthur Ignatius McNally is a former director of officiating for the National Football League (NFL) from 1968 to 1991. Before becoming director of officiating—succeeding Mark Duncan, who had held the position from 1964 to 1968—McNally served as a field judge and referee in the NFL for nine years from 1959 to 1967. During a 22-year span, he officiated over 3,000 football, baseball, and basketball games, which included one year in the National Basketball Association (NBA). In 2022, McNally became the first NFL game official to be enshrined into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
3. Erik Satie, French pianist and composer (b. 1866) deaths
  1. Erik Satie
    
    Eric Alfred Leslie Satie, who signed his name Erik Satie after 1884, was a French composer and pianist. He was the son of a French father and a British mother. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, but was an undistinguished student and obtained no diploma. In the 1880s he worked as a pianist in café-cabaret in Montmartre, Paris, and began composing works, mostly for solo piano, such as his Gymnopédies and Gnossiennes. He also wrote music for a Rosicrucian sect to which he was briefly attached.
1924
1. Antoni Ramallets, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2013) births
  1. Antoni Ramallets
    
    Antoni Ramallets Simón was a Spanish football goalkeeper and manager.
2. Florence Stanley, American actress (d. 2003) births
  1. Florence Stanley
    
    Florence Stanley was an American actress of stage, film, and television. She is best known for her roles in Barney Miller (1975–1977) and its spinoff Fish (1977-1978), My Two Dads (1987–1990), and Nurses (1991–1994), and the voice of Wilhelmina Bertha Packard in the franchise of Atlantis: The Lost Empire.
3. Georges Rivière, French actor births
  1. Georges Rivière
    
    Georges Aristide Claude Félix Rivière is a French retired actor who worked in Argentine cinema in the 1950s. He appeared in nearly 50 films between 1948 and 1970.
1923
1. Scotty Bowers, American marine, author and pimp (d. 2019) births
  1. Scotty Bowers
    
    George Albert "Scotty" Bowers was an American who was a United States Marine and, from the 1940s to the 1980s, a Hollywood pimp. Stories of his exploits circulated for many years and were alluded to in books such as the notoriously unreliable Hollywood Babylon. Bowers’ claims were met with both praise and skepticism.
1922
1. Toshi Seeger, German-American activist, co-founder of the Clearwater Festival (d. 2013) births
  1. Toshi Seeger
    
    Toshi Seeger was an American filmmaker, producer and environmental activist. A filmmaker who specialized in the subject of folk music, Toshi's credits include the 1966 film Afro-American Work Songs in a Texas Prison and the Emmy Award-winning documentary Pete Seeger: The Power of Song, released through PBS in 2007. In 1966, Seeger and her husband, folk-singer Pete Seeger, co-founded the Hudson River Sloop Clearwater, which seeks to protect the Hudson River and surrounding wetlands. Additionally, they co-founded the Clearwater Festival, a major music festival held annually at Croton Point Park in Westchester County, New York.
  2. Clearwater Festival
    
    The Clearwater Festival is a music and environmental summer festival and America's oldest and largest annual festival of its kind. This unique event has hosted over 15,000 people on a weekend in June for more than three decades. All proceeds benefit Hudson River Sloop Clearwater, Inc., a 501(c)(3) nonprofit environmental organization.
2. Mordechai Bibi, Israeli politician births
  1. Mordechai Bibi
    
    Mordechai Bibi is an Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Ahdut HaAvoda and its successors between 1959 and 1974.
1921
1. Seretse Khama, Batswana lawyer and politician, 1st President of Botswana (d. 1980) births
  1. Seretse Khama
    
    Sir Seretse Goitsebeng Maphiri Khama, GCB, KBE was a Motswana politician who served as the first President of Botswana, a post he held from 1966 to his death in 1980.
  2. President of Botswana
    
    The president of the Republic of Botswana is the head of state and the head of government of Botswana, as well as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, according to the Constitution of Botswana.
2. Michalina Wisłocka, Polish gynecologist and sexologist (d. 2005) births
  1. Michalina Wisłocka
    
    Michalina Anna Wisłocka was a Polish gynecologist, sexologist, and author of Sztuka kochania, the first guide to sexual life in a communist country. Her book became a bestseller, with a total circulation of 7 million copies, and started greater openness about matters of sex and sex life in Poland.
3. Arthur Johnson, Canadian canoeist (d. 2003) births
  1. Arthur Johnson (canoeist)
    
    Arthur Leonard Johnson was a Canadian sprint canoeist who competed in the early 1950s. He finished eighth in the C-2 1000 m event at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki.
1920
1. Henri Amouroux, French historian and journalist (d. 2007) births
  1. Henri Amouroux
    
    Henri Amouroux was a French historian and journalist.
2. Harold Sakata, Japanese-American wrestler and actor (d. 1982) births
  1. Harold Sakata
    
    Toshiyuki Sakata , better known as Harold Sakata, was an American Olympic weightlifter, professional wrestler, and film actor of Japanese descent. He won a silver medal for the United States at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London in weightlifting, and later became a popular professional wrestler under the ring name Tosh Togo, wrestling primarily for various National Wrestling Alliance territories as a tag team with Great Togo. He also wrestled extensively in Japan for All Japan Pro Wrestling, and was a one-time All Asia Tag Team Championship with Rikidōzan. On the basis of his wrestling work, he was cast in the James Bond film Goldfinger (1964) as the villain Oddjob, a role he would be closely associated with for the rest of his life.
3. George I. Fujimoto, American-Japanese chemist births
  1. George I. Fujimoto
    
    George Iwao Fujimoto is an American chemist of Japanese descent. During his studies at Harvard his family was imprisoned in an American internment camp Minidoka in Idaho. He discovered the Fujimoto-Belleau reaction, which is named after him and Bernard Belleau. He was widowed at the age of 99 when his wife Mary died in December 2019.
1919
1. Arnold Meri, Estonian colonel (d. 2009) births
  1. Arnold Meri
    
    Arnold Meri was a Soviet World War II veteran and the first Estonian Hero of the Soviet Union. After Estonia became independent, he was later charged with genocide for his role in the deportation of some Estonians to the inhospitable regions of the USSR. He was the cousin of President of Estonia, Lennart Meri. At the time of his death, Meri was an honorary chairman of the Estonian Anti-Fascist Committee.
2. Malik Dohan al-Hassan, Iraqi politician (d. 2021) births
  1. Malik Dohan al-Hassan
    
    Malik Dohan al-Hassan was an Iraqi politician and academician, who served as Minister of Culture and Information in 1967, headed the Iraqi Bar Association in 2003, and was the Minister of Justice in the Iraqi Interim Government in 2004.
3. Gerald E. Miller, American vice admiral (d. 2014) births
  1. Gerald E. Miller
    
    Gerald Edward Miller was a vice admiral in the United States Navy. He was a commander of the United States Sixth Fleet. He graduated in 1942 from the United States Naval Academy. Miller died of cancer in 2014 at his home in Oakton, Virginia.
1918
1. Ralph Young, American singer and actor (d. 2008) births
  1. Ralph Young (singer)
    
    Ralph Young was an American singer and actor. He was best known as the singing partner of Belgian-born Tony Sandler in the duo of Sandler and Young.
2. Ahmed Deedat, South African writer and public speaker (d. 2005) births
  1. Ahmed Deedat
    
    Ahmed Husein Deedat, also known as Ahmed Deedat, was a self-taught Muslim thinker, author, and orator on Comparative Religion from South Africa. He was best known as a Muslim missionary, who held numerous inter-religious public debates with evangelical Christians, as well as video lectures on Islam, Christianity, and the Bible.
3. Pedro Yap, Filipino lawyer (d. 2003) births
  1. Pedro Yap
    
    Pedro L. Yap was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines in 1988. He briefly served for two and a half months from April 19, 1988 to June 30, 1988, the shortest in history until that record was surpassed by Chief Justice Teresita de Castro. He worked in the notable Salonga, Ordoñez, Yap & Associates Law Offices, which was named after Jovito Salonga and Justice Secretary Sedfrey Ordoñez.
1917
1. Humphry Osmond, English-American lieutenant and psychiatrist (d. 2004) births
  1. Humphry Osmond
    
    Humphry Fortescue Osmond was an English psychiatrist who expatriated to Canada, then moved to work in the United States. He is known for inventing the word psychedelic and for his research into interesting and useful applications for psychedelic drugs. Osmond also explored aspects of the psychology of social environments, in particular how they influenced welfare or recovery in mental institutions.
2. Álvaro Domecq y Díez, Spanish aristocrat (d. 2005) births
  1. Álvaro Domecq y Díez
    
    Don Álvaro Domecq y Díez was born into an aristocratic Spanish sherry family in Jerez, of Cádiz, a province of Andalucia in south western Spain.
1916
1. Olivia de Havilland, British-American actress (d. 2020) births
  1. Olivia de Havilland
    
    Dame Olivia Mary de Havilland was a British-American actress. The major works of her cinematic career spanned from 1935 to 1988. She appeared in 49 feature films and was one of the leading actresses of her time. At the time of her death in 2020 at age 104, she was the oldest living and earliest surviving Academy Award winner and was widely considered as being the last surviving major star from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema. Her younger sister was Oscar-winning actress Joan Fontaine.
2. Iosif Shklovsky, Ukrainian astronomer and astrophysicist (d. 1985) births
  1. Iosif Shklovsky
    
    Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky was a Soviet astronomer and astrophysicist. He is remembered for work in theoretical astrophysics and other topics, as well as for his 1962 book on extraterrestrial life, the revised and expanded version of which was co-authored by American astronomer Carl Sagan in 1966 as Intelligent Life in the Universe.
3. George C. Stoney, American director and producer (d. 2012) births
  1. George C. Stoney
    
    George Cashel Stoney was an American documentary filmmaker, educator, and the "father of public-access television." Among his films were Palmour Street, A Study of Family Life (1949), All My Babies (1953), How the Myth Was Made (1979) and The Uprising of '34 (1995). All My Babies was entered into the National Film Registry in 2002. Stoney's life and work were the subject of a Festschrift volume of the journal Wide Angle in 1999.
1915
1. Willie Dixon, American blues singer-songwriter, bass player, guitarist and producer (d. 1992) births
  1. Willie Dixon
    
    William James Dixon was an American blues musician, vocalist, songwriter, arranger and record producer. He was proficient in playing both the upright bass and the guitar, and sang with a distinctive voice, but he is perhaps best known as one of the most prolific songwriters of his time. Next to Muddy Waters, Dixon is recognized as the most influential person in shaping the post–World War II sound of the Chicago blues.
2. Philip Lever, 3rd Viscount Leverhulme, British peer (d. 2000) births
  1. Philip Lever, 3rd Viscount Leverhulme
    
    Philip William Bryce Lever, 3rd Viscount Leverhulme was a British peer and racehorse owner.
3. Boots Poffenberger, American baseball pitcher (d. 1999) births
  1. Boots Poffenberger
    
    Cletus Elwood "Boots" Poffenberger was an American Major League Baseball pitcher for the Detroit Tigers (1937–1939) and Brooklyn Dodgers (1939).
4. Joseph Ransohoff, American soldier and neurosurgeon (d. 2001) births
  1. Joseph Ransohoff
    
    Dr. Joseph Ransohoff, II was a member of the Ransohoff family and a pioneer in the field of neurosurgery. In addition to training numerous neurosurgeons, his "ingenuity in adapting advanced technologies" saved many lives and even influenced the television program Ben Casey. Among other innovations, he created the first intensive care unit dedicated to neurosurgery, pioneered the use of medical imaging and catheterization in the diagnosis and treatment of brain tumors, and helped define the fields of pediatric neurosurgery and neuroradiology.
5. Nguyễn Văn Linh, Vietnamese politician (d. 1998) births
  1. Nguyễn Văn Linh
    
    Nguyễn Văn Linh was a Vietnamese revolutionary and politician. Nguyễn Văn Linh was the general secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam from 1986 to 1991 and a political leader of the Vietcong during the Vietnam War. During his time in office, Linh was a strong advocate of "Đổi Mới" (renovation), an economic plan whose aim is to turn Vietnam economy to a socialist-oriented market economy. As such, Linh was often touted as the "Vietnamese Gorbachev" after the Soviet leader, who introduced Perestroika.
1914
1. Thomas Pearson, British Army officer (d. 2019) births
  1. Thomas Pearson (British Army officer, born 1914)
    
    General Sir Thomas Cecil Hook Pearson, was a senior officer of the British Army who served as Commander-in-Chief of Allied Forces Northern Europe from 1972 to 1974. At the time of his death, he was the oldest living British full general.
2. Christl Cranz, German alpine skier (d. 2004) births
  1. Christl Cranz
    
    Christl Franziska Antonia Cranz-Borchers was a German alpine ski racer. Cranz dominated international competition in the 1930s, winning twelve world championship titles between 1934 and 1939. At the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, she won the combined competition.
3. Bernard B. Wolfe, American politician (d. 2016) births
  1. Bernard B. Wolfe
    
    Bernard B. Wolfe was an American politician in the state of Illinois.
1913
1. Frank Barrett, American baseball player (d. 1998) births
  1. Frank Barrett (baseball)
    
    Francis Joseph Barrett was an American baseball player. He was a relief pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Red Sox, Boston Braves, and Pittsburgh Pirates.
2. Lee Guttero, American basketball player (d. 2004) births
  1. Lee Guttero
    
    Lee A. "Rubberlegs" Guttero was an American basketball player who was the University of Southern California's first two-time NCAA All-American.
3. Vasantrao Naik, Indian politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 1979) births
  1. Vasantrao Naik
    
    Vasantrao Phulsing Naik was an Indian politician who served as Chief Minister of Maharashtra from 1963 until 1975. To this date, he remains as the longest-serving Chief Minister of Maharashtra. Also, he had a credit to return to power after completion of full five years. Vasantrao Naik is pioneer of green revolution and white revolution in Maharashtra state.
  2. List of chief ministers of Maharashtra
    
    The Chief Minister of Maharashtra is the head of the executive branch of the government of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Following elections to the Legislative Assembly, the governor invites the party with a majority of seats to form the government and appoints the chief minister. If the appointee is not a member of either the Legislative Assembly or the Legislative Council of Maharashtra, then the Constitution stipulates that they need to be elected within six months of being sworn in. The office of the CM is coterminous with the concurrent Assembly provided the CM commands confidence in the house and hence does not exceed five years. However, it is subject to no term limits.
1912
1. David Brower, American environmentalist, founder of the Sierra Club Foundation (d. 2000) births
  1. David Brower
    
    David Ross Brower was a prominent environmentalist and the founder of many environmental organizations, including the John Muir Institute for Environmental Studies (1997), Friends of the Earth (1969), Earth Island Institute (1982), North Cascades Conservation Council, and Fate of the Earth Conferences. From 1952 to 1969, he served as the first Executive Director of the Sierra Club, and served on its board three times: from 1941–1953; 1983–1988; and 1995–2000 as a petition candidate enlisted by reform-activists known as the John Muir Sierrans. As a younger man, he was a prominent mountaineer.
  2. Sierra Club Foundation
    
    The Sierra Club Foundation is an American nonprofit charitable organization focused on environmental efforts. It is the independent fiscal sponsor of the charitable programs of the Sierra Club, a 501(c)(4) social welfare organization. The organization's stated mission is to "help educate, inspire, and empower humanity to preserve the natural and human environment." Based in Oakland, California and founded in 1960, the Sierra Club Foundation funds a range of environmental projects. Members of the organization's board of directors have included Lynn Jurich and Mike Richter. The current board of directors include Darren Aronofsky, Steven Berkenfield, Marni McKinnney, Doug Walker and Sanjay Ranchod.
2. Sally Kirkland, American journalist (d. 1989) births
  1. Sally Kirkland (editor)
    
    Sally Kirkland was a manager at Lord & Taylor, a fashion editor at Vogue magazine and served as the only fashion editor at Life magazine between 1947 and 1969.
3. Harriet Quimby, American pilot and screenwriter (b. 1875) deaths
  1. Harriet Quimby
    
    Harriet Quimby was an American pioneering aviator, journalist, and film screenwriter.
1911
1. Arnold Alas, Estonian landscape architect and artist (d. 1990) births
  1. Arnold Alas
    
    Arnold Alas was an Estonian landscape architect and artist.
2. Sergey Sokolov, Russian marshal and politician, Soviet Minister of Defence (d. 2012) births
  1. Sergey Sokolov (marshal)
    
    Sergey Leonidovich Sokolov was a Soviet military commander, Hero of the Soviet Union, and served as Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union from 22 December 1984 until 29 May 1987.
  2. Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)
    
    The Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union refers to the head of the Ministry of Defence who was responsible for defence of the socialist Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1917 to 1922 and the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1992.
1910
1. Glenn Hardin, American hurdler (d. 1975) births
  1. Glenn Hardin
    
    Glenn Foster "Slats" Hardin was an American athlete, winner of 400 m hurdles at the 1936 Summer Olympics.
1909
1. Emmett Toppino, American sprinter (d. 1971) births
  1. Emmett Toppino
    
    Martin Emmett Toppino was an American athlete, winner of a gold medal in the 4 × 100 m relay at the 1932 Summer Olympics.
1907
1. Norman Pirie, Scottish-English biochemist and virologist (d. 1997) births
  1. Norman Pirie
    
    Norman Wingate (Bill) Pirie FRS, was a British biochemist and virologist who, along with Frederick Bawden, discovered that a virus can be crystallized by isolating tomato bushy stunt virus in 1936. This was an important milestone in understanding DNA and RNA.
1906
1. Jean Dieudonné, French mathematician and academic (d. 1992) births
  1. Jean Dieudonné
    
    Jean Alexandre Eugène Dieudonné was a French mathematician, notable for research in abstract algebra, algebraic geometry, and functional analysis, for close involvement with the Nicolas Bourbaki pseudonymous group and the Éléments de géométrie algébrique project of Alexander Grothendieck, and as a historian of mathematics, particularly in the fields of functional analysis and algebraic topology. His work on the classical groups, and on formal groups, introducing what now are called Dieudonné modules, had a major effect on those fields.
2. Estée Lauder, American businesswoman, co-founder of Estée Lauder Companies (d. 2004) births
  1. Estée Lauder (businesswoman)
    
    Estée Lauder was an American businesswoman. She co-founded her eponymous cosmetics company with her husband, Joseph Lauter. Lauder was the only woman on Time magazine's 1998 list of the 20 most influential business geniuses of the 20th century.
  2. The Estée Lauder Companies
    
    The Estée Lauder Companies Inc. is an American multinational cosmetics company, a manufacturer and marketer of makeup, skincare, fragrance and hair care products, based in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It is the second largest cosmetics company in the world after L'Oréal. The company owns a diverse portfolio of brands, distributed internationally through both digital commerce and retail channels.
1905
1. John Hay, American journalist and politician, 37th United States Secretary of State (b. 1838) deaths
  1. John Hay
    
    John Milton Hay was an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century. Beginning as a private secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln, Hay's highest office was United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Hay was also an author and biographer, and wrote poetry and other literature throughout much of his life.
  2. United States Secretary of State
    
    The United States secretary of state is a member of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States and the head of the U.S. Department of State. The office holder is one of the highest ranking members of the president's Cabinet, and ranks the first in the U.S. presidential line of succession among Cabinet secretaries.
1903
1. Amy Johnson, English pilot (d. 1941) births
  1. Amy Johnson
    
    Amy Johnson was a pioneering English pilot who was the first woman to fly solo from London to Australia.
2. Beatrix Lehmann, English actress (d. 1979) births
  1. Beatrix Lehmann
    
    Beatrix Alice Lehmann was a British actress, theatre director, writer and novelist.
1902
1. William Wyler, French-American film director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1981) births
  1. William Wyler
    
    William Wyler was a Swiss-German-American film director and producer who won the Academy Award for Best Director three times, those being for Mrs. Miniver (1942), The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), and Ben-Hur (1959), all of which also won for Best Picture. In total, he holds a record twelve nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director.
1901
1. Irna Phillips, American screenwriter (d. 1973) births
  1. Irna Phillips
    
    Irna Phillips was an American scriptwriter, screenwriter, casting agent and actress. She is best remembered for pioneering a format of the daytime soap opera in the United States geared specifically toward women. Phillips created, produced, and wrote several radio and television daytime serials throughout her career, including Guiding Light, As the World Turns, and Another World. She was also a mentor to several other pioneers of the American daytime soap opera, including Agnes Nixon and William J. Bell.
1899
1. Thomas A. Dorsey, American pianist and composer (d. 1993) births
  1. Thomas A. Dorsey
    
    Thomas Andrew Dorsey was an American musician, composer, and Christian evangelist influential in the development of early blues and 20th-century gospel music. He penned 3,000 songs, a third of them gospel, including "Take My Hand, Precious Lord" and "Peace in the Valley". Recordings of these sold millions of copies in both gospel and secular markets in the 20th century.
2. Charles Laughton, English-American actor and director (d. 1962) births
  1. Charles Laughton
    
    Charles Laughton was a British-American actor. He was trained in London at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and first appeared professionally on the stage in 1926. In 1927, he was cast in a play with his future wife Elsa Lanchester, with whom he lived and worked until his death.
3. Konstantinos Tsatsos, Greek scholar and politician, President of Greece (d. 1987) births
  1. Konstantinos Tsatsos
    
    Konstantinos D. Tsatsos was a Greek diplomat, professor of law, scholar and politician. He served as the second President of the Third Hellenic Republic from 1975 to 1980.
  2. President of Greece
    
    The president of Greece, officially the President of the Hellenic Republic, commonly referred to in Greek as the President of the Republic, is the head of state of Greece. The president is elected by the Hellenic Parliament; the role has been mainly ceremonial since the 1986 constitutional reform. The office was formally established by the Constitution of Greece in 1975, but has antecedents in the Second Hellenic Republic of 1924–1935 and the Greek junta in 1973–1974 which predated the transition to the current Third Hellenic Republic. The incumbent, since 13 March 2020, is Katerina Sakellaropoulou.
1896
1. Harriet Beecher Stowe, American author and activist (b. 1811) deaths
  1. Harriet Beecher Stowe
    
    Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe was an American author and abolitionist. She came from the religious Beecher family and became best known for her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), which depicts the harsh conditions experienced by enslaved African Americans. The book reached an audience of millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and in Great Britain, energizing anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. Stowe wrote 30 books, including novels, three travel memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential both for her writings and for her public stances and debates on social issues of the day.
1892
1. James M. Cain, American author and journalist (d. 1977) births
  1. James M. Cain
    
    James Mallahan Cain was an American novelist, journalist and screenwriter. He is widely regarded as a progenitor of the hardboiled school of American crime fiction.
2. László Lajtha, Hungarian composer and conductor (d. 1963) births
  1. László Lajtha
    
    László Lajtha was a Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist and conductor.
1887
1. Amber Reeves, New Zealand-English author and scholar (d. 1981) births
  1. Amber Reeves
    
    Amber Blanco White was a New Zealand-born British feminist writer and scholar.
1885
1. Dorothea Mackellar, Australian author and poet (d. 1968) births
  1. Dorothea Mackellar
    
    Isobel Marion Dorothea Mackellar, was an Australian poet and fiction writer. Her poem My Country is widely known in Australia, especially its second stanza, which begins: "I love a sunburnt country/A land of sweeping plains,/Of ragged mountain ranges,/Of droughts and flooding rains."
1884
1. Allan Pinkerton, Scottish-American detective and spy (b. 1819) deaths
  1. Allan Pinkerton
    
    Allan J. Pinkerton was a Scottish cooper, abolitionist, detective, and spy, best known for creating the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in the United States and his claim to have foiled a plot in 1861 to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln. During the Civil War, he provided the Union Army – specifically General George B. McClellan of the Army of the Potomac – with military intelligence, including extremely inaccurate enemy troop strength numbers. After the war, his agents played a significant role as strikebreakers – in particular during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 – a role that Pinkerton men would continue to play after the death of their founder.
1883
1. Arthur Borton, English colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1933) births
  1. Arthur Borton
    
    Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Drummond Borton was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
  2. Victoria Cross
    
    The Victoria Cross (VC) is the highest and most prestigious award of the British honours system. It is awarded for valour "in the presence of the enemy" to members of the British Armed Forces and may be awarded posthumously. It was previously awarded by countries of the Commonwealth of Nations, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians under military command. No civilian has received the award since 1879. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857, two-thirds of all awards have been personally presented by the British monarch. The investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace.
1882
1. Bidhan Chandra Roy, Indian physician and politician, 2nd Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1962) births
  1. Bidhan Chandra Roy
    
    Bidhan Chandra Roy MRCP FRCS was an Indian physician, educationist, and statesman who served as Chief Minister of West Bengal from 1948 until his death in 1962. Roy played a key role in the founding of several institutions and the cities Bidhannagar and Kalyani. In India, the National Doctors' Day is celebrated in his memory every year on the 1st of July. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour in 1961.
  2. List of chief ministers of West Bengal
    
    The Chief Minister of West Bengal is the representative of the Government of India in the state of West Bengal and the head of the executive branch of the Government of West Bengal. The chief minister is head of the Council of Ministers and appoints ministers. The chief minister, along with their cabinet, exercises executive authority in the state. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly.
1881
1. Edward Battersby Bailey, English geologist (d. 1965) births
  1. Edward Battersby Bailey
    
    Sir Edward Battersby Bailey FRS FRSE MC CB LLD was an English geologist.
1879
1. Léon Jouhaux, French union leader, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954) births
  1. Léon Jouhaux
    
    Léon Jouhaux was a French trade union leader who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1951.
  2. Nobel Peace Prize
    
    The Nobel Peace Prize is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Swedish industrialist, inventor and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine and Literature. Since March 1901, it has been awarded annually to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses".
1878
1. Jacques Rosenbaum, Estonian-German architect (d. 1944) births
  1. Jacques Rosenbaum
    
    Jacques Rosenbaum was an Estonian architect of Baltic German descent. Between 1904–07 he served as municipal architect of Tartu, Estonia, and is best known for his Art Nouveau buildings in Tallinn.
1876
1. T. J. Ryan, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Queensland (d. 1921) births
  1. T. J. Ryan
    
    Thomas Joseph Ryan was an Australian politician who served as Premier of Queensland from 1915 to 1919, as leader of the state Labor Party. He resigned to enter federal politics, sitting in the House of Representatives for the federal Labor Party from 1919 until his premature death less than two years later.
  2. Premier of Queensland
    
    The premier of Queensland is the head of government in the Australian state of Queensland.
1875
1. Joseph Weil, American con man (d. 1976) births
  1. Joseph Weil
    
    Joseph "Yellow Kid" Weil was one of the best known American con men of his era. Weil's biographer, W. T. Brannon, wrote of Weil's "uncanny knowledge of human nature". During the course of his career, Weil is reputed to have stolen more than $8 million.
  2. 1976
    
    1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, the 1976th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 976th year of the 2nd millennium, the 76th year of the 20th century, and the 7th year of the 1970s decade.
1873
1. Alice Guy-Blaché, French-American film director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1968) births
  1. Alice Guy-Blaché
    
    Alice Ida Antoinette Guy-Blaché was a French pioneer filmmaker. She was one of the first filmmakers to make a narrative fiction film, as well as the first woman to direct a film. From 1896 to 1906, she was probably the only female filmmaker in the world. She experimented with Gaumont's Chronophone sync-sound system, and with color-tinting, interracial casting, and special effects.
2. Andrass Samuelsen, Faroese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1954) births
  1. Andrass Samuelsen
    
    Andrass Samuelsen was a Faroese politician and member of the Union Party. He was the first Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands after the autonomy of the Faroe Islands in 1948 (Heimastýrislógin).
  2. List of lawmen and prime ministers of the Faroe Islands
    
    The prime minister of the Faroe Islands is the head of government of the Faroe Islands
1872
1. Louis Blériot, French pilot and engineer (d. 1936) births
  1. Louis Blériot
    
    Louis Charles Joseph Blériot was a French aviator, inventor, and engineer. He developed the first practical headlamp for cars and established a profitable business manufacturing them, using much of the money he made to finance his attempts to build a successful aircraft. Blériot was the first to use the combination of hand-operated joystick and foot-operated rudder control as used to the present day to operate the aircraft control surfaces. Blériot was also the first to make a working, powered, piloted monoplane. In 1909 he became world-famous for making the first airplane flight across the English Channel, winning the prize of £1,000 offered by the Daily Mail newspaper. He was the founder of Blériot Aéronautique, a successful aircraft manufacturing company.
2. William Duddell, English physicist and engineer (d. 1917) births
  1. William Duddell
    
    William Du Bois Duddell was an English physicist and electrical engineer. His inventions include the moving coil oscillograph, as well as the thermo-ammeter and thermo-galvanometer.
1869
1. William Strunk Jr., American author and educator (d. 1946) births
  1. William Strunk Jr.
    
    William Strunk Jr. was an American professor of English at Cornell University and author of The Elements of Style (1918). After revision and enlargement by his former student E. B. White, it became a highly influential guide to English usage during the late 20th century, commonly called Strunk & White.
1863
1. William Grant Stairs, Canadian-English captain and explorer (d. 1892) births
  1. William Grant Stairs
    
    William Grant Stairs was a Canadian-British explorer, soldier, and adventurer who had a leading role in two of the most controversial expeditions in the Scramble for Africa.
2. John F. Reynolds, American general (b. 1820) deaths
  1. John F. Reynolds
    
    John Fulton Reynolds was a career United States Army officer and a general in the American Civil War. One of the Union Army's most respected senior commanders, he played a key role in committing the Army of the Potomac to the Battle of Gettysburg and was killed at the start of the battle.
1860
1. Charles Goodyear, American chemist and engineer (b. 1800) deaths
  1. Charles Goodyear
    
    Charles Goodyear was an American self-taught chemist and manufacturing engineer who developed vulcanized rubber, for which he received patent number 3633 from the United States Patent Office on June 15, 1844.
1858
1. Willard Metcalf, American painter (d. 1925) births
  1. Willard Metcalf
    
    Willard Leroy Metcalf was an American painter born in Lowell, Massachusetts. He studied at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and later attended Académie Julian, Paris. After early figure-painting and illustration, he became prominent as a landscape painter. He was one of the Ten American Painters who in 1897 seceded from the Society of American Artists. For some years he was an instructor in the Women's Art School, Cooper Union, New York, and in the Art Students League, New York. In 1893 he became a member of the American Watercolor Society, New York. Generally associated with American Impressionism, he is also remembered for his New England landscapes and involvement with the Old Lyme Art Colony at Old Lyme, Connecticut and his influential years at the Cornish Art Colony.
2. Velma Caldwell Melville, American editor and writer of prose and poetry (d. 1924) births
  1. Velma Caldwell Melville
    
    Velma Caldwell Melville was an American editor, and writer of prose and poetry from Wisconsin. She served as editor of the "Home Circle and Youths' Department" of the Practical Farmer of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as well as for the "Hearth and Home Department" of the Wisconsin Farmer, of Madison, Wisconsin. She was one of the most voluminous writers of her time in Central/Western United States publications. Melville wrote several serials, and her poems and sketches appeared in nearly 100 publications.
1850
1. Florence Earle Coates, American poet (d. 1927) births
  1. Florence Van Leer Earle Coates
    
    Florence Van Leer Earle Nicholson Coates was an American poet, whose prolific output was published in many literary magazines, some of it set to music. She was mentored by the English poet Matthew Arnold, with whom she maintained a lifelong friendship. She was famous for her many nature-poems, inspired by the flora and fauna of the Adirondacks, where she lived. She was elected poet laureate of Pennsylvania by the state Federation of Women's Clubs in 1915.
1839
1. Mahmud II, Ottoman sultan (b. 1785) deaths
  1. Mahmud II
    
    Mahmud II was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
1834
1. Jadwiga Łuszczewska, Polish poet and author (d. 1908) births
  1. Jadwiga Łuszczewska
    
    Jadwiga Łuszczewska was a Polish poet, novelist and salonniére. She was born and died in Warsaw.
1822
1. Nguyễn Đình Chiểu, Vietnamese poet and activist (d. 1888) births
  1. Nguyễn Đình Chiểu
    
    Nguyễn Đình Chiểu was a Vietnamese poet who was known for his nationalist and anti-colonial writings against the French colonization of Cochinchina, the European name for the southern part of Vietnam.
1819
1. The Public Universal Friend, American evangelist (b. 1752) deaths
  1. Public Universal Friend
    
    The Public Universal Friend was an American preacher born in Cumberland, Rhode Island, to Quaker parents. After suffering a severe illness in 1776, the Friend claimed to have died and been reanimated as a genderless evangelist named the Public Universal Friend, and afterward shunned both birth name and gendered pronouns. In androgynous clothes, the Friend preached throughout the northeastern United States, attracting many followers who became the Society of Universal Friends.
1818
1. Ignaz Semmelweis, Hungarian-Austrian physician and obstetrician (d. 1865) births
  1. Ignaz Semmelweis
    
    Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician and scientist, who was an early pioneer of antiseptic procedures. Described as the "saviour of mothers", he discovered that the incidence of puerperal fever could be drastically reduced by requiring hand disinfection in obstetrical clinics. Puerperal fever was common in mid-19th-century hospitals and often fatal. He proposed the practice of washing hands with chlorinated lime solutions in 1847 while working in Vienna General Hospital's First Obstetrical Clinic, where doctors' wards had three times the mortality of midwives' wards. He published a book of his findings in Etiology, Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever.
2. Karl von Vierordt, German physician, psychologist and academic (d. 1884) births
  1. Karl von Vierordt
    
    Karl von Vierordt was a German physiologist.
1814
1. Robert Richard Torrens, Irish-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of South Australia (d. 1884) births
  1. Robert Richard Torrens
    
    Sir Robert Richard Torrens,, also known as Robert Richard Chute Torrens, was an Irish-born parliamentarian, writer, and land reformer. After a move to London in 1836, he became prominent in the early years of the Colony of South Australia, emigrating after being appointed to a civil service position there in 1840. He was Colonial Treasurer and Registrar-General from 1852 to 1857 and then the third Premier of South Australia for a single month in September 1857.
  2. Premier of South Australia
    
    The premier of South Australia is the head of government in the state of South Australia, Australia. The Government of South Australia follows the Westminster system, with a Parliament of South Australia acting as the legislature. The premier is appointed by the governor of South Australia, and by modern convention holds office by virtue of his or her ability to command the support of a majority of members of the lower house of Parliament, the House of Assembly.
1808
1. Ygnacio del Valle, Mexican-American landowner (d. 1880) births
  1. Ygnacio del Valle
    
    Ygnacio Ramón de Jesus del Valle was a Californio ranchero and politician. He owned much of the Santa Clarita Valley and served briefly as Mayor of Los Angeles and as a California State Assemblyman.
1807
1. Thomas Green Clemson, American politician and educator, founder of Clemson University (d. 1888) births
  1. Thomas Green Clemson
    
    Thomas Green Clemson was an American politician and statesman, serving as an ambassador and United States Superintendent of Agriculture. He served in the Confederate Army and founded Clemson University in South Carolina. Historians have called Clemson "a quintessential nineteenth-century Renaissance man."
  2. Clemson University
    
    Clemson University is a public land-grant research university in Clemson, South Carolina. Founded in 1889, Clemson is the second-largest university in student population in South Carolina. For the fall 2019 semester, the university enrolled a total of 20,195 undergraduate students and 5,627 graduate students, and the student/faculty ratio was 18:1. Clemson's 1,400-acre campus is in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The campus now borders Lake Hartwell, which was formed by the dam completed in 1962. The university manages the nearby 17,500-acre Clemson Experimental Forest that is used for research, education, and recreation.
1804
1. Charles Gordon Greene, American journalist and politician (d. 1886) births
  1. Charles Gordon Greene
    
    Charles Gordon Greene was an American journalist.
2. George Sand, French author and playwright (d. 1876) births
  1. George Sand
    
    Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin de Francueil, best known by her pen name George Sand, was a French novelist, memoirist and journalist. One of the most popular writers in Europe in her lifetime, being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era, with more than 70 novels to her credit and 50 volumes of various works including novels, tales, plays and political texts.
1788
1. Jean-Victor Poncelet, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1867) births
  1. Jean-Victor Poncelet
    
    Jean-Victor Poncelet was a French engineer and mathematician who served most notably as the Commanding General of the École Polytechnique. He is considered a reviver of projective geometry, and his work Traité des propriétés projectives des figures is considered the first definitive text on the subject since Gérard Desargues' work on it in the 17th century. He later wrote an introduction to it: Applications d'analyse et de géométrie.
1787
1. Charles de Rohan, French marshal (b. 1715) deaths
  1. Charles, Prince of Soubise
    
    Charles de Rohan, Prince of Soubise, Duke of Rohan-Rohan, Seigneur of Roberval, and Marshal of France from 1758, was a soldier, and minister to kings Louis XV and Louis XVI. He was the last male of his branch of the House of Rohan, and was great-grandfather to the Duke of Enghien, executed by Napoleon in 1804. Styled Prince d'Epinoy at birth, he became the Prince of Soubise after 1749.
1784
1. Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, German organist and composer (b. 1710) deaths
  1. Wilhelm Friedemann Bach
    
    Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, the second child and eldest son of Johann Sebastian Bach and Maria Barbara Bach, was a German composer and performer. Despite his acknowledged genius as an organist, improviser and composer, his income and employment were unstable and he died in poverty.
1782
1. Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, English admiral and politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b. 1730) deaths
  1. Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham
    
    Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, was a British Whig statesman, most notable for his two terms as Prime Minister of Great Britain. He became the patron of many Whigs, known as the Rockingham Whigs, and served as a leading Whig grandee. He served in only two high offices during his lifetime but was nonetheless very influential during his one and a half years of service.
  2. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
    
    The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government of the United Kingdom. The prime minister advises the sovereign on the exercise of much of the royal prerogative, chairs the Cabinet and selects its ministers. As modern prime ministers hold office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons, they sit as members of Parliament.
1774
1. Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1705) deaths
  1. Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland
    
    Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland, PC, of Holland House in Kensington and of Holland House in Kingsgate, Kent, was a leading British politician. He identified primarily with the Whig faction. He held the posts of Secretary at War, Southern Secretary and Paymaster of the Forces, from which latter post he enriched himself. Whilst widely tipped as a future Prime Minister, he never held that office. His third son was the Whig statesman Charles James Fox.
  2. Secretary of State for the Southern Department
    
    The Secretary of State for the Southern Department was a position in the cabinet of the government of the Kingdom of Great Britain up to 1782, when the Southern Department became the Home Office.
1771
1. Ferdinando Paer, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1839) births
  1. Ferdinando Paer
    
    Ferdinando Paer was an Italian composer known for his operas. He was of Austrian descent and used the German spelling Pär in application for printing in Venice, and later in France the spelling Paër.
1749
1. William Jones, Welsh mathematician and academic (b. 1675) deaths
  1. William Jones (mathematician)
    
    William Jones, FRS was a Welsh mathematician, most noted for his use of the symbol π to represent the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. He was a close friend of Sir Isaac Newton and Sir Edmund Halley. In November 1711 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was later its vice-president.
1742
1. Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, German physicist and academic (d. 1799) births
  1. Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
    
    Georg Christoph Lichtenberg was a German physicist, satirist, and Anglophile. As a scientist, he was the first to hold a professorship explicitly dedicated to experimental physics in Germany. He is remembered for his posthumously published notebooks, which he himself called sudelbücher, a description modelled on the English bookkeeping term "waste books" or "scrapbooks", and for his discovery of tree-like electrical discharge patterns now called Lichtenberg figures.
1736
1. Ahmed III, Ottoman sultan (b. 1673) deaths
  1. Ahmed III
    
    Ahmed III was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV. His mother was Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek. He was born at Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, in Dobruja. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother Mustafa II (1695–1703). Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and the Sultan's daughter, Fatma Sultan directed the government from 1718 to 1730, a period referred to as the Tulip Era.
1731
1. Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, Scottish-English admiral (d. 1804) births
  1. Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan
    
    Admiral Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, KB was a British admiral who defeated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown on 11 October 1797. This victory is considered one of the most significant actions in naval history.
1726
1. Acharya Bhikshu, Jain saint (d. 1803) births
  1. Acharya Bhikshu (Jain Monk)
    
    Acharya Bhikshu (1726–1803) was the founder and first spiritual head of the Swetambar Terapanth sect of Jainism.
1725
1. Rhoda Delaval, English painter and aristocrat (d. 1757) births
  1. Rhoda Delaval
    
    Rhoda Delaval Astley was an English aristocrat and artist. She was married to Edward Astley, with whom she had a daughter and three sons. Lady Astley studied painting with Arthur Pond, who painted her portrait. Seaton Delaval Hall passed from the Delaval family to the Astley family through her descendants.
2. Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, French general (d. 1807) births
  1. Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau
    
    Marshal Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, 1 July 1725 – 10 May 1807, was a French nobleman and general whose army played the decisive role in helping the United States defeat the British army at Yorktown in 1781 during the American Revolution. He was commander-in-chief of the French Expeditionary Force sent by France to help the American Continental Army fight against British forces.
1681
1. Oliver Plunkett, Irish archbishop and saint (b. 1629) deaths
  1. Oliver Plunkett
    
    Oliver Plunkett, was the Catholic Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland who was the last victim of the Popish Plot. He was beatified in 1920 and canonised in 1975, thus becoming the first new Irish saint in almost seven hundred years.
1663
1. Franz Xaver Murschhauser, German composer and theorist (d. 1738) births
  1. Franz Xaver Murschhauser
    
    Franz Xaver Anton Murschhauser was a German composer and theorist.
1646
1. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German mathematician and philosopher (d. 1716) births
  1. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
    
    Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat. He is one of the most prominent figures in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathematics. He wrote works on philosophy, theology, ethics, politics, law, history and philology. Leibniz also made major contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in probability theory, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics and computer science. In addition, he contributed to the field of library science: while serving as overseer of the Wolfenbüttel library in Germany, he devised a cataloging system that would have served as a guide for many of Europe's largest libraries. Leibniz's contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and in unpublished manuscripts. He wrote in several languages, primarily in Latin, French and German, but also in English, Italian and Dutch.
1633
1. Johann Heinrich Heidegger, Swiss theologian and author (d. 1698) births
  1. Johann Heinrich Heidegger
    
    Johann Heinrich Heidegger, Swiss theologian, was born at Bäretswil, in the Canton of Zürich.
1622
1. William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, English politician (b. 1575) deaths
  1. William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle
    
    William Parker, 13th Baron Morley, 4th Baron Monteagle, was an English peer, best known for his role in the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. In 1605 Parker was due to attend the opening of Parliament. He was a member of the House of Lords as Lord Monteagle, the title on his mother's side. He received a letter; it appears that someone, presumably a fellow Catholic, was afraid he would be blown up. The so-called Monteagle letter survives in the National Archives, but its origin remains mysterious.
1614
1. Isaac Casaubon, French philologist and scholar (b. 1559) deaths
  1. Isaac Casaubon
    
    Isaac Casaubon was a classical scholar and philologist, first in France and then later in England.
1592
1. Marc'Antonio Ingegneri, Italian composer and educator (b. 1535) deaths
  1. Marc'Antonio Ingegneri
    
    Marc'Antonio Ingegneri was an Italian composer of the late Renaissance. He was born in Verona and died in Cremona. Even though he spent most of his life working in northern Italy, because of his stylistic similarity to Palestrina he is often considered to be a member of the Roman School of polyphonic church music. He is also famous as the teacher of Claudio Monteverdi.
1589
1. Lady Saigō, Japanese concubine (b. 1552) deaths
  1. Lady Saigō
    
    Lady Saigō, also known as Oai, was the first consort and trusted confidante of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the samurai lord who unified Japan at the end of the sixteenth century and then ruled as shōgun. She was also the mother of the second Tokugawa shōgun, Tokugawa Hidetada. Her contributions were considered so significant that she was posthumously inducted to the Senior First Rank of the Imperial Court, the highest honor that could be conferred by the Emperor of Japan.
1586
1. Claudio Saracini, Italian lute player and composer (d. 1630) births
  1. Claudio Saracini
    
    Claudio Saracini was an Italian composer, lutenist, and singer of the early Baroque era. He was one of the most famous and distinguished composers of monody.
1574
1. Joseph Hall, English bishop and mystic (d. 1656) births
  1. Joseph Hall (bishop)
    
    Joseph Hall was an English bishop, satirist and moralist. His contemporaries knew him as a devotional writer, and a high-profile controversialist of the early 1640s. In church politics, he tended in fact to a middle way.
1555
1. John Bradford, English reformer, prebendary of St. Paul's (b. 1510) deaths
  1. John Bradford
    
    John Bradford (1510–1555) was an English Reformer, prebendary of St. Paul's, and martyr. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London for alleged crimes against Queen Mary I. He was burned at the stake on 1 July 1555.
  2. English Reformation
    
    The English Reformation took place in 16th-century England when the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Catholic Church. These events were part of the wider European Protestant Reformation, a religious and political movement that affected the practice of Christianity in Western and Central Europe.
  3. Prebendary
    
    A prebendary is a member of the Roman Catholic or Anglican clergy, a form of canon with a role in the administration of a cathedral or collegiate church. When attending services, prebendaries sit in particular seats, usually at the back of the choir stalls, known as prebendal stalls.
  4. Old St Paul's Cathedral
    
    Old St Paul's Cathedral was the cathedral of the City of London that, until the Great Fire of 1666, stood on the site of the present St Paul's Cathedral. Built from 1087 to 1314 and dedicated to Saint Paul, the cathedral was perhaps the fourth church at Ludgate Hill.
1553
1. Peter Street, English carpenter and builder (d. 1609) births
  1. Peter Street (carpenter)
    
    Peter Street was an English carpenter and builder in London in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. He built the Fortune Playhouse, and probably the Globe Theatre, two significant establishments in the history of the stage in London. He had a part in building King James's Banqueting House in Whitehall Palace and he may have been responsible for the settings for the king's royal masques.
1534
1. Frederick II of Denmark (d. 1588) births
  1. Frederick II of Denmark
    
    Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein from 1559 until his death.
1506
1. Louis II of Hungary (d. 1526) births
  1. Louis II of Hungary
    
    Louis II was King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from 1516 to 1526. He was killed during the Battle of Mohács fighting the Ottomans, whose victory led to the Ottoman annexation of large parts of Hungary.
1481
1. Christian II of Denmark (d. 1559) births
  1. Christian II of Denmark
    
    Christian II was a Scandinavian monarch under the Kalmar Union who reigned as King of Denmark and Norway, from 1513 until 1523, and Sweden from 1520 until 1521. From 1513 to 1523, he was concurrently Duke of Schleswig and Holstein in joint rule with his uncle Frederick.
1464
1. Clara Gonzaga, Italian noble (d. 1503) births
  1. Clara Gonzaga
    
    Clara Gonzaga, Countess of Montpensier, Dauphine of Auvergne, Duchess of Sessa was an Italian noblewoman of the House of Gonzaga. She was the daughter of Federico I Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua and the wife of Gilbert, Count of Montpensier.
1348
1. Joan, English princess deaths
  1. Joan of England (died 1348)
    
    Joan of England was a daughter of Edward III and his wife, Philippa of Hainault. Joan, also known as Joanna, was born in the Tower of London. As a child she was placed in the care of Marie de St Pol, wife of Aymer de Valence and foundress of Pembroke College, Cambridge. She grew up with her sister Isabella, her brother Edward, and their cousin Joan of Kent, and she died in the Black Death that struck Europe in 1348.
1321
1. María de Molina, queen of Castile and León deaths
  1. María de Molina
    
    María Alfonso Téllez de Meneses, known as María de Molina, was queen consort of Castile and León from 1284 to 1295 by marriage to Sancho IV of Castile, and served as regent for her minor son Ferdinand IV and later her grandson Alfonso XI of Castile (1312-1321).
1311
1. Liu Bowen, Chinese military strategist, statesman and poet (d. 1375) births
  1. Liu Bowen
    
    Liu Ji, courtesy name Bowen, better known as Liu Bowen, was a Chinese military strategist, philosopher, and politician who lived in the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. He was born in Qingtian County. He served as a key advisor to Zhu Yuanzhang, the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty, in the latter's struggle to overthrow the Yuan dynasty and unify China proper under his rule. Liu is also known for his prophecies and has been described as the "Divine Chinese Nostradamus". He and Jiao Yu co-edited the military treatise known as the Huolongjing.
1287
1. Narathihapate, Burmese king (b. 1238) deaths
  1. Narathihapate
    
    Narathihapate was the last king of the Pagan Empire who reigned from 1256 to 1287. The king is known in Burmese history as the "Taruk-Pyay Min" for his flight from Pagan (Bagan) to Lower Burma in 1285 during the first Mongol invasion (1277–87) of the kingdom. He eventually submitted to Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty in January 1287 in exchange for a Mongol withdrawal from northern Burma. But when the king was assassinated six months later by his son Thihathu, the Viceroy of Prome, the 250-year-old Pagan Empire broke apart into multiple petty states. The political fragmentation of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery would last for another 250 years until the mid-16th century.
1277
1. Baibars, Egyptian sultan (b. 1223) deaths
  1. Baybars
    
    Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari, of Turkic Kipchak origin, commonly known as Baibars or Baybars – nicknamed Abu al-Futuh – was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria in the Bahri dynasty, succeeding Qutuz. He was one of the commanders of the Egyptian forces that inflicted a defeat on the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France. He also led the vanguard of the Egyptian army at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which marked the first substantial defeat of the Mongol army and is considered a turning point in history.
1242
1. Chagatai Khan, Mongol ruler (b. 1183) deaths
  1. Chagatai Khan
    
    Chagatai Khan was the second son of Genghis Khan and Börte. He inherited most of what are now five Central Asian states after the death of his father. He was also appointed by Genghis Khan to oversee the execution of the Yassa, the written code of law created by Genghis Khan.
1224
1. Hōjō Yoshitoki, regent of the Kamakura shogunate of Japan (b. 1163) deaths
  1. Hōjō Yoshitoki
    
    Hōjō Yoshitoki was the second Hōjō shikken (regent) of the Kamakura shogunate and head of the Hōjō clan. He was the second son of Hōjō Tokimasa. He was shikken from the abdication of his father Tokimasa in 1205 until his death in 1224.
  2. Kamakura shogunate
    
    The Kamakura shogunate was the feudal military government of Japan during the Kamakura period from 1185 to 1333.
1109
1. Alfonso VI, king of León and Castile (b. 1040) deaths
  1. Alfonso VI of León and Castile
    
    Alfonso VI, nicknamed the Brave or the Valiant, was king of León (1065–1109), Galicia (1071–1109), and Castile (1072–1109).
992
1. Heonjeong, Korean queen (b. 966) deaths
  1. Queen Heonjeong
    
    Queen Heonjeong of the Hwangju Hwangbo clan or formally called as Grand Queen Mother Hyosuk during her son's reign, was a Goryeo royal family member as the third daughter of Wang Uk and youngest sister of King Seongjong who became the fourth wife of her half first cousin, King Gyeongjong. After his death, she had an affair with her half uncle which they eventually became the biological parent of King Hyeonjong. From this marriage, Queen Heonjeong became the fourth reigned Goryeo queen who followed her maternal clan after Queen Heonae, her elder sister.
552
1. Totila, Ostrogoth king deaths
  1. Totila
    
    Totila, original name Baduila, was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. A skilled military and political leader, Totila reversed the tide of the Gothic War, recovering by 543 almost all the territories in Italy that the Eastern Roman Empire had captured from his Kingdom in 540.

Holidays

Christian feast day: Aaron (Syriac Christianity)
1. Aaron
  
  According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of Moses. Knowledge of Aaron, along with his brother Moses, exclusively comes from religious texts, such as the Bible and the Quran.
2. Syriac Christianity
  
  Syriac Christianity is a distinctive branch of Eastern Christianity, whose formative theological writings and traditional liturgies are expressed in the Classical Syriac language, a variation of the Aramaic language. In a wider sense, the term can also refer to Aramaic Christianity in general, thus encompassing all Christian traditions that are based on liturgical uses of Aramaic language and its variations, both historical and modern.
Christian feast day: Blessed Antonio Rosmini-Serbati
1. Beatification
  
  Beatification is a recognition accorded by the Catholic Church of a deceased person's entrance into Heaven and capacity to intercede on behalf of individuals who pray in their name. Beati is the plural form, referring to those who have undergone the process of beatification; they possess the title of "Blessed" before their names and are often referred to in English as "a Blessed" or, plurally, "Blesseds".
2. Antonio Rosmini
  
  Blessed Antonio Francesco Davide Ambrogio Rosmini-Serbati was an Italian Roman Catholic priest and philosopher. He founded the Rosminians, officially the Institute of Charity or Societas a charitate nuncupata, pioneered the concept of social justice, and Italian Liberal Catholicism. Alessandro Manzoni considered Rosmini the only contemporary Italian author worth reading.
Christian feast day: Felix of Como
1. Felix of Como
  
  Saint Felix of Como is venerated as the first bishop of Como.
Christian feast day: Junípero Serra
1. Junípero Serra
  
  Junípero Serra y Ferrer was a Spanish Roman Catholic priest and missionary of the Franciscan Order. He is credited with establishing the Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. He later founded a mission in Baja California and the first nine of 21 Spanish missions in California from San Diego to San Francisco, in what was then Spanish-occupied Alta California in the Province of Las Californias, New Spain.
Christian feast day: Julius and Aaron
1. Julius and Aaron
  
  Julius and Aaron were two Romano-British Christian saints who were martyred around the third century. Along with Saint Alban, they are the only named Christian martyrs from Roman Britain. Most historians place the martyrdom in Caerleon, although other suggestions have placed it in Chester or Leicester. Their feast day was traditionally celebrated on 1 July, but it is now observed together with Alban on 20 June by the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches.
Christian feast day: Leontius of Autun
1. Leontius of Autun
  
  Saint Leontius was a bishop of Autun during the fifth century. His feast day is 1 July. He is mentioned in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum. He is sometimes confused with the similarly named Saint Leonorius.
Christian feast day: Servanus
1. Saint Serf
  
  Saint Serf or Serbán (Servanus) is a saint of Scotland. Serf was venerated in western Fife. He is called the apostle of Orkney, with less historical plausibility. Saint Serf is connected with Saint Mungo's Church near Simonburn, Northumberland. His feast day is 1 July.
Christian feast day: Veep
1. Saint Veep
  
  Saint Veep is the Cornish saint for whom the village and parish of St Veep were named.
Christian feast day: July 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
1. July 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
  
  June 30 - Eastern Orthodox Church calendar - July 2
Christian feast day: Feast of the Most Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ (removed from official Roman Catholic calendar since 1969)
1. Feast of the Most Precious Blood
  
  The Feast of the Most Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ is a feast, which has been in the General Roman Calendar from 1849 to 1969. It is focused on the Blood of Christ and its salvific nature.
2. Catholic Church
  
  The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2019. As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies located around the world. The pope, who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The bishopric of Rome, known as the Holy See, is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia, has its principal offices in Vatican City, a small enclave of the Italian city of Rome, of which the pope is head of state.
Earliest day on which Alexanderson Day can fall, celebrated on the Sunday closest to July 2. (Sweden)
1. Alexanderson Day
  
  Alexanderson Day, named after the Swedish radio engineer Ernst Fredrik Werner Alexanderson and held either on the last Sunday in June, or on the first Sunday in July, whichever comes closer to 2 July, is the day of the open house at the Swedish government VLF transmitter Grimeton, call sign SAQ, located near Varberg. On Alexanderson Day, Christmas Eve, and at other times during the year, the only workable Alexanderson alternator transmitter in the world is used to transmit short Morse messages on 17.2 kHz, which should be easily receivable in all of Europe. The transmitter is preserved as a historical remnant of early radio technology and as an example of VLF equipment.
2. Sweden
  
  Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic country in Scandinavia. It borders Norway to the west and north, Finland to the east, and is connected to Denmark in the southwest by a bridge–tunnel across the Öresund. At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the largest Nordic country, the third-largest country in the European Union, and the fifth-largest country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Stockholm. Sweden has a total population of 10.5 million, and a low population density of 25.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (66/sq mi), with around 87% of Swedes residing in urban areas in the central and southern half of the country.
Earliest day on which CARICOM Day can fall, celebrated on the first Monday of July. (Guyana)
1. Treaty of Chaguaramas
  
  The Treaty of Chaguaramas established the Caribbean Community and Common Market, popularly known as CARICOM. It was signed on 4 July 1973 in Chaguaramas, Trinidad and Tobago. It was signed by Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. It came into effect on 1 August 1973. The treaty established the regional institution while replacing the Caribbean Free Trade Association which ceased to exist on 1 May 1974. The revised treaty, signed in 2001, created the Caribbean Single Market and Economy.
2. Guyana
  
  Guyana, officially the Co‑operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern mainland of South America. Guyana is an indigenous word which means "Land of Many Waters". The capital city is Georgetown. Guyana is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Brazil to the south and southwest, Venezuela to the west, and Suriname to the east. With 215,000 km2 (83,000 sq mi), Guyana is the third-smallest sovereign state by area in mainland South America after Uruguay and Suriname, and is the second-least populous sovereign state in South America after Suriname; it is also one of the least densely populated countries on Earth. It has a wide variety of natural habitats and very high biodiversity.
Earliest day on which Constitution Day can fall, celebrated on the first Monday of July. (Cayman Islands)
1. Constitution Day
  
  Constitution Day is a holiday to honour the constitution of a country. Constitution Day is often celebrated on the anniversary of the signing, promulgation or adoption of the constitution, or in some cases, to commemorate the change to constitutional monarchy.Abkhazia, 26 November (1994). See Constitution of Abkhazia. Andorra, 14 March (1993). Known locally as Dia de la Constitució. See Constitution of Andorra. Argentina, 1 May (1853). See Constitution of Argentina. Not a public holiday. Armenia, 5 July (1995). See Constitution of Armenia. Australia, 9 July (1900). See Constitution of Australia. Not a public holiday. Azerbaijan, 12 November (1995). See Constitution of Azerbaijan. Not a public holiday. Belarus, 15 March (1994). Known locally as Dzień Kanstytucyji. See Constitution of Belarus. Belgium, 21 July (1890). Known locally as Nationale feestdag van België and Fête nationale belge . Day of the Flemish Community, 11 July. Known locally as Feestdag van Vlaanderen. French Community Holiday, 27 September. Known locally as Fête de la Communauté française. Wallonia Day, third Sunday of September. Day of the German-speaking Community of Belgium, 15 November. Known locally as Feiertag der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft. Brazil, 15 November (1889). Known in Brazil as Dia da Proclamação da República. See Constitution of Brazil. Public holiday.
2. Cayman Islands
  
  The Cayman Islands is a self-governing British Overseas Territory—the largest by population in the western Caribbean Sea. The 264-square-kilometre (102-square-mile) territory comprises the three islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, which are located to the south of Cuba and northeast of Honduras, between Jamaica and Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. The capital city is George Town on Grand Cayman, which is the most populous of the three islands.
Earliest day on which Día del Amigo can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday of July. (Peru)
1. Friendship Day
  
  Friendship Day is a day in several countries for celebrating friendship. It was initially promoted by the greeting card industry; evidence from social networking sites shows a revival of interest in Friendship Day that may have grown with the spread of the internet, particularly in India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia. Mobile phones, digital communication, and social media have contributed to popularize the custom. Those who promote the day in South Asia attribute the tradition of dedicating a day in honour of friends to have originated in the United States in 1935.
2. Peru
  
  Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River. Peru has a population of 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1.28 million km2, Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America.
Earliest day on which Fishermen's Holiday can fall, celebrated on the first Friday of July. (Marshall Islands)
1. Public holidays in the Marshall Islands
  
  This is a list of public holidays in the Marshall Islands.
2. Marshall Islands
  
  The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands, is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia. The country's population of 58,413 people is spread out over five islands and 29 coral atolls, comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets. The capital and largest city is Majuro. It has the largest portion of its territory composed of water of any sovereign state, at 97.87%. The islands share maritime boundaries with Wake Island to the north, Kiribati to the southeast, Nauru to the south, and Federated States of Micronesia to the west. About 52.3% of Marshall Islanders live on Majuro. In 2016, 73.3% of the population were defined as being "urban". The UN also indicates a population density of 760 inhabitants per square mile (295/km2), and its projected 2020 population is 59,190.
Earliest day on which Heroes' Day can fall, celebrated on the first Monday of July. (Zambia)
1. Public holidays in Zambia
  
  There are approximately thirteen nationally recognized public holidays celebrated in the Republic of Zambia, a country in Southern Africa.
2. Zambia
  
  Zambia, officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most central point. Its neighbours are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the northeast, Malawi to the east, Mozambique to the southeast, Zimbabwe and Botswana to the south, Namibia to the southwest, and Angola to the west. The capital city of Zambia is Lusaka, located in the south-central part of Zambia. The nation's population of around 19.5 million is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the north, the core economic hubs of the country.
Earliest day on which International Co-operative Day can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday of July.
1. International Co-operative Day
  
  International Co-operative Day is an annual celebration of the co-operative movement observed on the first Saturday in July since 1923 by the International Co-operative Alliance.
Earliest day on which International Free Hugs Day can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday of July.
1. Free Hugs Campaign
  
  The Free Hugs Campaign is a social movement involving individuals who offer hugs to strangers in public places. The hugs are meant to be random acts of kindness—selfless acts performed just to make others feel better. International Free Hugs Month is celebrated on the first Saturday of July and continues until August first.
Earliest day on which Navy Day can fall, celebrated on the first Sunday of July. (Ukraine)
1. Navy Day
  
  Several nations observe or have observed a Navy Day to recognize their navy.
2. Ukraine
  
  Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq mi). Prior to the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War, it was the eighth-most populous country in Europe, with a population of around 41 million people. It is also bordered by Belarus to the north; by Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; and by Romania and Moldova to the southwest; with a coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the south and southeast. Kyiv is the nation's capital and largest city. Ukraine's official and national language is Ukrainian; most people are also fluent in Russian.
Earliest day on which Navy Days can fall, celebrated on the first Saturday and Sunday of July. (Netherlands)
1. Navy Day
  
  Several nations observe or have observed a Navy Day to recognize their navy.
2. Netherlands
  
  The Netherlands, informally Holland, is a country located in Northwestern Europe with overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands consists of twelve provinces; it borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, with a North Sea coastline to the north and west. It shares maritime borders with the United Kingdom, Germany and Belgium in the North Sea. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages, while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages. Dutch, English and Papiamento are official in the Caribbean territories.
Earliest day on which Youth Day can fall, celebrated on the first Sunday of July. (Singapore)
1. Youth Day
  
  National Youth Day is a holiday dedicated to the youths of a country. It is observed by 18 countries, on many dates throughout the year. The United Nations agreed on the date of 12 August in 1999 in South Africa.
Armed Forces Day (Singapore)
1. Armed Forces Day
  
  Many nations around the world observe some kind of Armed Forces Day to honor their military forces. This day is not to be confused with Veterans Day or Memorial Day.
Bobby Bonilla Day (United States)
1. Bobby Bonilla
  
  Roberto Martin Antonio Bonilla is an American former professional baseball third baseman and outfielder who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1986 to 2001.
Canada Day, formerly Dominion Day (Canada)
1. Canada Day
  
  Canada Day, formerly known as Dominion Day, is the national day of Canada. A federal statutory holiday, it celebrates the anniversary of Canadian Confederation which occurred on July 1, 1867, with the passing of the British North America Act, 1867 where the three separate colonies of the United Canadas, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into a single Dominion within the British Empire called Canada. Originally called Dominion Day, the holiday was renamed in 1982, the same year that the Canadian Constitution was patriated by the Canada Act 1982. Canada Day celebrations take place throughout the country, as well as in various locations around the world attended by Canadians living abroad.
2. Dominion Day
  
  Dominion Day was a day commemorating the granting of certain countries Dominion status — that is, "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It was an official public holiday in Canada from 1879 to 1982, where it was celebrated on 1 July; that date is now known as Canada Day. In the Dominion of New Zealand, the anniversary of the granting of Dominion status, on 26 September, was observed as Dominion Day; it was never a public holiday.
Children's Day (Pakistan)
1. Children's Day
  
  Children's Day is a commemorative date celebrated annually in honor of children, whose date of observance varies by country. In 1925, International Children's Day was first proclaimed in Geneva during the World Conference on Child Welfare. Since 1950, it is celebrated on June 1 in most Communist and post-Communist countries. World Children's Day is celebrated on the 20th November to commemorate the Declaration of the Rights of the Child by the UN General Assembly on 20 November 1959. In some countries, it is Children's Week and not Children's Day.
Chinese Communist Party Founding Day (China)
1. Chinese Communist Party
  
  The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang, and in 1949 Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Since then, the CCP has governed China with eight smaller parties within its United Front and has sole control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Each successive leader of the CCP has added their own theories to the party's constitution, which outlines the ideological beliefs of the party, collectively referred to as socialism with Chinese characteristics. As of 2022, the CCP has more than 96 million members, making it the second largest political party by party membership in the world after India's Bharatiya Janata Party. The Chinese public generally refers to the CCP as simply "the Party".
Day of Officials and Civil Servants (Hungary)
1. Day of Officials and Civil Servants
  
  Day of officials and civil servants is held on every 1 July in Hungary. It was the date when the law XXXIII. of 1992 about officials became effective in the same year. Trade union of Hungarian Officials and State Employee proposed to hold a celebration in every year on this day. First celebration was held in 1997 as a Day of Officials. It is a holiday for officials since 2001. On 20 July 2011 Parliament of Hungary declared the day as a holiday for civil servants as well.
2. Hungary
  
  Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning 93,030 square kilometres (35,920 sq mi) of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to the west. Hungary has a population of nearly 9 million, mostly ethnic Hungarians and a significant Romani minority. Hungarian, the official language, is the world's most widely spoken Uralic language and among the few non-Indo-European languages widely spoken in Europe. Budapest is the country's capital and largest city; other major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs, and Győr.
Doctors' Day (India)
1. National Doctors' Day
  
  National Doctors' Day is a day celebrated to recognize the contributions of physicians to individual lives and communities. The date varies from nation to nation depending on the event of commemoration used to mark the day. In some nations the day is marked as a holiday. Although supposed to be celebrated by patients in and benefactors of the healthcare industry, it is usually celebrated by health care organizations. Staff may organize a lunch for doctors to present the physicians with tokens of recognition. Historically, a card or red carnation may be sent to physicians and their spouses, along with a flower being placed on the graves of deceased physicians.
Emancipation Day (Sint Maarten and Sint Eustatius)
1. Emancipation Day
  
  Emancipation Day is observed in many former European colonies in the Caribbean and areas of the United States on various dates to commemorate the emancipation of slaves of African descent.
2. Sint Maarten
  
  Sint Maarten is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Caribbean. With a population of 41,486 as of January 2019 on an area of 41.44 km2 (16.00 sq mi), it encompasses the southern 44% of the divided island of Saint Martin, while the northern 56% of the island constitutes the French overseas collectivity of Saint Martin. Sint Maarten's capital is Philipsburg. Collectively, Sint Maarten and the other Dutch islands in the Caribbean are often called the Dutch Caribbean.
3. Sint Eustatius
  
  Sint Eustatius, also known locally as Statia, is an island in the Caribbean. It is a special municipality of the Netherlands.
Engineer's Day (Bahrain, Mexico)
1. Engineer's Day
  
  Engineer's Day is observed in several countries on various dates of the year. On 25 November 2019, based on a proposal by the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO), UNESCO has proclaimed March 4 as 'UNESCO World Engineering Day for Sustainable Development'.
2. Bahrain
  
  Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an additional 33 artificial islands, centered on Bahrain Island which makes up around 83 percent of the country's landmass. Bahrain is situated between Qatar and the northeastern coast of Saudi Arabia, to which it is connected by the King Fahd Causeway. According to the 2020 census, the country's population numbers 1,501,635, of which 712,362 are Bahraini nationals. Bahrain spans some 760 square kilometres (290 sq mi), and is the third-smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. The capital and largest city is Manama.
3. Mexico
  
  Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Mexico covers 1,972,550 square kilometers (761,610 sq mi), making it the world's 13th-largest country by area; with approximately 126,014,024 inhabitants, it is the 10th-most-populous country and has the most Spanish-speakers. Mexico is organized as a federal republic comprising 31 states and Mexico City, its capital. Other major urban areas include Monterrey, Guadalajara, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and León.
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Hong Kong, China)
1. Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day
  
  Establishment Day, formally the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day, is celebrated annually on 1 July in Hong Kong, China since 1997. The holiday celebrates the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China and the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The similarly-named holiday in Macau occurs on 20 December, the day of its handover from Portugal.
2. Hong Kong
  
  Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delta in South China. With 7.5 million residents of various nationalities in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated places in the world. Hong Kong is also a major global financial centre and one of the most developed cities in the world.
Independence Day (Burundi), celebrates the independence of Burundi from Belgium in 1962.
1. Public holidays in Burundi
2. Burundi
  
  Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and East Africa. It is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border. The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura, the latter being the country's largest city.
Independence Day (Rwanda)
1. Public holidays in Rwanda
  
  This is a list of public holidays in Rwanda. Rwanda observes fourteen regular public holidays.
Independence Day (Somalia)
1. Independence Day (Somalia)
  
  The Independence Day of Somalia is a national holiday observed annually in Somalia on July 1. The date celebrates the unification of the Trust Territory of Italian Somaliland and the British Somaliland on July 1, 1960, which formed the Somali Republic. A government was subsequently formed by Abdullahi Issa and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with speaker of the SOMALIA ACT OF UNION Hagi Bashir Ismail Yussuf as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic, On July 20, 1961 and through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960.
International Tartan Day
1. Tartan Day
  
  Tartan Day is a North American celebration of Scottish heritage on 6 April, the date on which the Declaration of Arbroath was signed in 1320. It originated in Canada in the mid-1980s. It spread to other communities of the Scottish diaspora in the 1990s. In Australia, a similar International Tartan Day is held on 1 July, the anniversary of the repeal of the 1747 Act of Proscription that banned the wearing of tartan.
July Morning (Bulgaria)
1. July Morning
  
  July Morning is an annual Bulgarian festival, celebrated on the night before and the first day of July. The festival is unique to Bulgaria but it is not universally observed in the country.
2. Bulgaria
  
  Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, and the Black Sea to the east. Bulgaria covers a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), and is the sixteenth-largest country in Europe. Sofia is the nation's capital and largest city; other major cities are Plovdiv, Varna and Burgas.
Keti Koti (Emancipation Day) (Suriname)
1. Ketikoti
  
  Ketikoti, sometimes spelled as Keti Koti, or officially Dag der Vrijheden is an annual celebration on 1 July that marks Emancipation Day in Suriname. The day is also known as Manspasi Dei or Prisiri Manspasi, meaning "Emancipation" or "Emancipation Festival". or Kettingsnijden.
2. Emancipation Day
  
  Emancipation Day is observed in many former European colonies in the Caribbean and areas of the United States on various dates to commemorate the emancipation of slaves of African descent.
3. Suriname
  
  Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname, is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, and Brazil to the south. At just under 165,000 square kilometers, it is the smallest sovereign state in South America.
Madeira Day (Madeira, Portugal)
1. Madeira Day
  
  Madeira Day, celebrated in Madeira on 1 July, is a holiday marking the date when Portuguese explorers arrived in Machico's bay in 1419 and Portugal granted autonomy to Madeira in 1976. It is a public holiday in the Autonomous Region.
2. Madeira
  
  Madeira, officially the Autonomous Region of Madeira, is one of two autonomous regions of Portugal, the other being the Azores. It is an archipelago situated in the North Atlantic Ocean, in a region known as Macaronesia, just under 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north of the Canary Islands and 520 kilometres (320 mi) west of the Kingdom of Morocco. Madeira is geologically located on the African Tectonic Plate, notwithstanding being culturally, sociologically, economically and politically European as it is its southern archipelago neighbor. Its population was 251,060 in 2021. The capital of Madeira is Funchal, which is located on the main island's south coast.
Moving Day (Quebec) (Canada)
1. Moving Day (Quebec)
  
  Moving Day is a tradition, but not a legal requirement, in the province of Quebec, Canada, dating from the time when the province used to mandate fixed terms for leases of rental properties. It falls on July 1, which is also Canada Day.
Newfoundland and Labrador Memorial Day
1. Memorial Day (Newfoundland and Labrador)
  
  Memorial Day has been observed annually since 1 July 1917, to recall the losses of approximately 700 soldiers of the 1st Newfoundland Regiment from the Dominion of Newfoundland at Beaumont-Hamel on the first day on the Somme during the First World War. Since the induction of Newfoundland into Canada in 1949, "Memorial Day" has been amalgamated to commemorate the sacrifices of members of the armed forces of the Canadian province Newfoundland and Labrador in times of war. It is observed concurrently with Canada's national holiday, Canada Day.
Republic Day (Ghana)
1. Public holidays in Ghana
  
  There are approximately thirteen nationally recognized public holidays in Ghana, a sub-Saharan country in Africa. The primary National holiday is Independence Day which is on the 6th of March. It is a National Day and is set to honor the memory of Ghana's independence from the United Kingdom in 1957.
Sir Seretse Khama Day (Botswana)
1. Public holidays in Botswana
  
  Public holidays in Botswana are largely controlled by government sector employers who are given paid time off. The government holiday schedule mainly benefits employees of government and government regulated businesses. At the discretion of the employer, other non-federal holidays such as Christmas Eve are common additions to the list of paid holidays.
2. Botswana
  
  Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70 percent of its territory being the Kalahari Desert. It is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. It is connected to Zambia across the short Zambezi River border by the Kazungula Bridge.
Territory Day (British Virgin Islands)
1. Public holidays in the British Virgin Islands
  
  Holidays in the British Virgin Islands are predominantly religious holidays, with a number of additional national holidays. The most important holiday in the Territory is the August festival, which is celebrated on the three days from the first Monday in August to commemorate the abolition of slavery in the British Virgin Islands.
Territory Day (Northern Territory, Australia)
1. Territory Day
  
  Territory Day is a holiday widely celebrated in the Northern Territory of Australia on 1 July that commemorates the territory achieving self-government in 1978. The holiday has been famously commemorated with fireworks since the early 1980s. Popularly known as Cracker Night, Territorians are provided five hours to legally blow up fireworks without needing a permit or special training, the only instance of its kind in Australia.
The first day of Van Mahotsav, celebrated until July 7. (India)
1. Van Mahotsav
  
  Van Mahotsav or Vanamahotsava, lit. 'Forest festival', is an annual one-week tree-planting festival in India which is celebrated in the first week of July.